BLACK SEA REGION AT THE CROSSROADS OF CIVILIZATIONS

The issue of Restoration of Autocephaly of the Georgian Orthodox Church (The Commission for the Agreement on Georgian-Russian Church Interests, 1917)

Irina Arabidze — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

After the declaration of restoration of the independence of the Church of Georgia (March 12 (25), 1917), the Church had to struggle for the full implementation of its autocephalous rights in Revolutionary Russia. The latter contradicted with the goals of the Petrograd Provisional Government and Russian Church.
The Government appointed Professor Vladimir Beneshevich by Petrograd University as its trustee for the affairs of the Church of Georgia. Together with the Autocephalists, he was to develop „the basic Provisions of the legal status of the Church of Georgia within the Russian State“. He was to head the Commission for the Agreement on Russian-Georgian Church Interests. The Commission was established by the Decree of the Provisional Government and operated in Tbilisi from April 21 to June 3, 1917.
The need for its formation arose from the claims of the representatives of the Russian Church on the property of the former Exarchate of Georgia, which originally belonged to the old Iberian Catholicosate or the Georgian clergy. After the restoration of autocephaly, this property should have remained under the ownership of the Georgian Church.
It was evident from the title that the commission's task was to divide the churches, monasteries, and other property of the Georgian Church along national lines. This approach contradicted the spirit of the laws of both the Ecumenical and local church councils.
The appointment of the scholar known as the best canonist and a good-thinking person was met with joy by the Georgian society, but Beneshevich disappointed their expectations.
The Commission sessions discussed the issues of belonging to the churches and monasteries, Church institutions and buildings located at the territory of the former Catholicate of Iveria. The details of the Commission's work have not been discussed in the scholarly literature.
The goal of the article is to fill the history of Georgia and of its Church with the details and facts mentioned in the Protocols of the Agreement Commission sessions. The main source of the article is these minutes.
Georgian side does not highly assess the Protocols in terms of fully reflecting the real situation at the Commission sessions, but the criteria and arguments presented by the Georgian and Russian sides to prove the ownership of churches and monasteries are interesting. At the same time, they are also important for the history of the Controversial churches and monasteries;
The Protocols confirm the facts of distortion by Russian monks of the appearance of churches and frescoes. This was mentioned not only by Georgian but also by Russian members of the commission. This is one of the pieces of evidence that the claim by Russian church authorities, asserting that the purpose of settling Russian monks in Georgian monasteries was also to protect the monuments there, does not correspond to reality.
The Protocols reflect the unfair and tendentious approach of the Chairman of the Agreed Commission, Vladimir Beneshevich, on the issue of Autocephaly of the Church of Georgia;
The Protocols, although indirectly, confirm the opinion of the Autocephalists, according to which Commissioner Beneshevich is evaluated as a biased judge; materials from the Protocols also
More or less, give us an idea of the tense environment in which the defenders of the independence of the Church of Georgia had to work.

The Unwritten Custom about Christian Women

Nino Gagoshashvili — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

In the official Canonical tradition, the laws passed by world and local Church Assemblies enjoy unwavering authority. Excerpts from Epistles or other works by the Holy and Blessed Fathers of the Church, which are approv ed as tradition and cannot be changed or denied by anyone; are also approved by the V-VI Church Assemblies.
As for the first three centuries, during this period the Church life is directly connected with the Apostolic tradition, custom; examples of which can be found in Didache (75-85), in the Epistle of Clement of Rome To the Corinthians (ca. 95 AD), in Justin's Apology (middle of the 2nd century), in the Synodal Acts of the local Churches (2nd and 3rd centuries), in the Decrees by the Apostles and others.
This so-called Customary Law has become a source of eternal inspiration for the Canonical tradition. This is confirmed by Canon 6 of the First World Church Assembly and Canon 2 of the Second World Church Assembly. In the same vein, the letter of Basil the Great To Amphilochius On the Holy Spirit, which shows the special importance of the old rule in spreading the faith of the Apostles and in the Holy tradition of the Church, is the basis of many other rules developed at world and local Church Assemblies. It says: "Numerous righteous and enlightening teachings preserved in the Church were handed down to us in writing, and some of them, which come from the tradition of the Apostles, were kept secret from us. ... If we try to change these "unwritten rules" as not having much power ... our preaching will become just empty words."
This "unwritten rule" or the "custom", which is equal in force to the Law, allows us to reconsider the existing Laws about the place and role of women in the Church of Christ, collected from the Christian Canonical Collection The Law of the Great Faith. The Laws mostly concern the place of women in the family, marriage, Church; there are rules that the Law of Faith attributes to "custom" and does not specify, etc. These issues are particularly relevant due to the growing interest to the gender studies.

The Problematic Events of 1997 in the Georgian Orthodox Church − Exit from the World Council of Churches

Lasha Deisadze-Sharvashidze — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The Apostolic Autocephalous Orthodox Church of Georgia, in its centuries-long history of existence, repeatedly faced internal and external challenges.
One of the acute ones was the complexly problematic issue raised in the Georgian Church in 1997, when there was an active demand that the Georgian Orthodox Church leave the international religious organization "World Council of Churches". This request was voiced by the members of many monasteries,various clergy and part of the parish. They published official letters in which they announced that they were severing the Eucharistic connection with the Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia and Patriarchate of Georgia. The mentioned letters were printed in the contemporary press.
The situation was very serious and at the same time connected with acute threats, since there was a danger of schism (split) in the Orthodox Church of Georgia. At the same time, the Church of Georgia found itself in the danger of self-isolation in the international arena, however, the situation demanded urgent and reasonable decisions to be made in order for the Church of Georgia to avoid schism.
On May 20, 1997, the meeting of the Holy Synod of the Apostolic Autocephalous Orthodox Church of Georgia took place, which made a decision on the withdrawal of the Georgian Church from the World Council of Churches. At the same time, impose canonical punishments on those persons who broke the Eucharistic unity with the Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia and the Patriarchate of Georgia.

Tomis, „Prima Sedis Episcopalis” of the Church of Scythia Minor. Historical and Legal Testimonies about the Juridical Status of its Primates

Nicolae V. Dură — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

About the status of the Primate of a local autocephalous Church, constituted within an ethnic and geographical framework - as it was the case with the Church of the Roman province "Scythia Minor" - we have reliable evidence both from historical and legal sources (State and Church).
In order to write the pages of this study, with an interdisciplinary content (historical and juridical), we have resorted to first-hand sources, i.e. to the testimonies provided by the historical sources, the State and Church legislation of the first millennium and the text of the "Episcopal Lists" (Notitiae Episcopatuum), which has been of real use to us both in terms of knowledge of the history of the ancient legal institutions of the Church in the Danubian-Pontic area, i.e. in the geographical area of Romanian territory between the Lower Danube and the Black Sea, namely of the province Dobrudja, and, ipso facto, of the evolutionary process of the constitution of the legal status of its Primate, i.e. of archbishop of the metropolis of Tomis and metropolitan of the Roman province of Scythia Minor.

The Epoch of Matthew Basarab and Its Significance in the South-East European Context

Alin Cățoiu — Sat, 22 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

This study presents the most important cultural-religious achievements produced during the reign of Matei Basarab, who reigned in Wallachia between 1632 and 1654. The long reign of Matei Basarab was an era of religious fervour and cultural development. It was he who made a major contribution to replacing the Slavonic language with Romanian in official, religious and civil life. He introduced the first written legislation: the Pravila (printed at the Govora Monastery, 1640), as well as the Pravila Îndreptarea legii (Târgoviște, 1652). Matthias Basarab also built dozens of churches from the ground up, as well as rebuilding many others, both in the country and outside – on Mount Athos (in 1645, he paid the taxes for the entire Holy Mountain), and on the territory of present-day Bulgaria, in Vidin and Șistov. The last part of the study therefore examines his role as a protector of south-eastern European culture and as a supporter of Orthodoxy, who was an assiduous advocate of both the unaltered preservation of Orthodox tradition and the promotion of a Christian European civilisation. In this way, the era of Matei Basarab exemplifies historian Nicolae Iorga’s paradigm of “Byzantium after Byzantium”.

Romanian Culture and Spirituality in the Phanariot Era

Tudor Cosmin — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

Regardless of the field it refers to, the history of the Romanian nation cannot be presented, analyzed and commented separately from the past and the bimillennial experience of Romanian Christianity. In art, the Church is present through its places of worship and iconography; in literature, the bibliographical roots from which today's Romanian language has developed were planted with much hard work, faith and diligence by hierarchs and writers of the Church; in education, the hallway of the churches still remains a point of reference for the evocations of many consecrated Romanian writers; in the sphere of social assistance, the Church has been present, in one form or another, since the beginning of its spread in Romania; in the field of thought and ideas, teachings, exhortations and doctrines on life and society belonging to prominent hierarchs and theologians of the Church; even in politics and administration, at least until the beginning of the modern period, many of the Orthodox hierarchs who have pastored over the centuries have been the protagonists of events and initiatives about which chroniclers have written significant pages of history. Such testimonies are evidence of the fact that history cannot make an initial distinction between Christianity and Romanianism, because there is an organic fusion between Orthodoxy and the Romanian soul. We appear in history simply as a Romanian people.
Consequently, in the Phanariot era (1716-1821), we can say that the culture and spirituality of the Romanians people have the same common denominator: the confession of the Orthodox faith by deed and word.

Two ancient institutions of mankind, „Engagement” and „Marriage”, in the light of the biblical and legal texts. Some considerations and assessments

Cătălina Mititelu — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

A hermeneutical examination to both biblical text (Old and New Testament) and of the legal texts, has enabled us to ascertain that the institution of marriage - preceded by betrothal – have their primary legal basis in jus divinum (divine law) and jus naturale (natural law), or better said in the natural-moral law, and then in jus scriptum.
We have also remarked that the provisions of principle laid down in divine law and natural law, concerning engagement and marriage, have been taken up and affirmed both in the jus gentium, and in Roman law ('vetus' (old) and 'novum' (new), alias Byzantine law), and through them in international and national matrimonial law.
Hence, therefore, the duty of any research (jurist and historian of the legal institutions), who wants to speak about the two ancient institutions of mankind, id est Engagement and Marriage, to resort both to the biblical text of the Old and New Testament, that is with Bible, and to the legal texts (from Antiquity until our days).

Relevant Aspects of the Fundamental Problems of Hellenism and Its Influence

Ioan-Gheorghe Rotaru — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

Apart from the elements of Hellenism, it is difficult to truly understand the culture in which Christianity was born and to which Jesus Christ was addressed, because Hellenism has left its mark on thought, including that of the Jewish people, creating a discrepancy between biblical teaching and the spirit in which it was interpreted.
The history of Hellenism is an important study for those who want to understand the influence that Greek culture has had on the history of thought and the synthesis of the history of Christianity, through its double influence: that on Jewish culture and then on Christian thought. Although the Hellenistic empire of Alexander and then the Hellenistic states that succeeded it lasted only three centuries, the influence of Hellenism has a wide range and time horizon.
The Hellenistic era saw the birth of scientific, philosophical, ethical and religious ideas that dominated the world for centuries. Important advances were also made in the economic sphere, in the forms of political life, in social consciousness and in culture.
However historically assessed, the changes that took place then cannot be overlooked, because they constitute an essential historical process.

The Evolution and Importance of the Law of the Sea in the Contemporary Multidisciplinary World

Cristina Elena Popa Tache — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The law of the sea is a branch of international law that is highly interdisciplinary, incorporating elements of maritime law, environmental law and international relations. As such, it is an area of research that is particularly suited to multi- and trans-disciplinary inquiry, by which we mean that particular intersection between the civilization of multiple disciplines. Recent years have seen increased concern for the protection of the marine environment and sustainable resource management, with a move towards new regulations on pollution, fisheries management and other human activities that may affect this environment. Recognition of the importance of fisheries and aquaculture to food security is conferred by the fact that they are important sources of food for billions of people around the world. Added to this are other concerns about the increasing numbers of migrants and people being trafficked via sea routes and the fight against piracy and other illegal activities. By incorporating transdisciplinary perspectives, the law of the sea can be better equipped to address the interconnected nature of marine issues such as marine pollution, climate change and ocean governance. In an ever-changing world, society has increasingly moved towards shaping international rules, creativity and transdisciplinarity as a tool for regulating all the issues arising from them. Through these variations of contemporary reality, we see how multi- and transdisciplinarity has become an important and necessary tool even for 'conservative' international law. One of the mutations has been the shift from the statocentric to the cosmopolitan view, through the recognition that not only states but also other entities, such as non-governmental organizations and individuals, play an important role in a global system of governance. The arguments and conclusions of this paper are intended to highlight the importance of understanding the finding and establishing another, more comprehensive research method in its adaptation to the new dynamics of society, going through the appropriate meta-analysis filtered through the ethos of the researcher. The elaboration of this article is based on the method of specific scientific introspection correlated with the transdisciplinary method. The sources used were specific primary and secondary sources from scientific journals, books, documents, expert opinions and other publications.

The Law of Saint Calinic and its importance for the Diocese of Râmnic

Florin Tudorescu — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The present study presents an important aspect of the pastoral-canonical activity of Saint Hierarch Calinic, Bishop of Râmnic (1850 – 1868), namely the way in which he exercised the teaching power of the Church, during a difficult period of the Episcopate of Râmnic.
In the first part of the study, the personality of Hierarch Calinic, bishop of Râmnic, is highlighted. Saint Hierarch Calinic, a good connoisseur of the canons of the Orthodox Church, wanted to know and apply them throughout the territory of the Diocese of Râmnic, which is why he printed in 1862 the book entitled Manual of Church Laws. Although he is not the author of this book, Saint Calinic prints the Manual of Laws and introduces certain teachings into it, thus proving a careful involvement in the organization of church life within the Episcopate of Râmnic, in accordance with the canons of the Orthodox Church.
The largest part of the study carried out is an analysis of the Law manual printed by the Holy Hierarch Calinic and has the role of highlighting not only the decisions and canonical norms that it contained, but also the way in which they were adapted to concrete needs of the Romanian Orthodox clergy and faithful people.

12th Century Political Reality and the Argument of Oldness The Knight in the Tiger’s Skin

Inga Sanikidze — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

In The Knight in the Tiger’s Skin, as one of the significant segments of Rustaveli’s worldview we consider to be the enigmatic form of Anthroponi Parsadani. Our point of view somewhat contradicts the viewpoint established in the Georgian scientific literature, which originates from Yu. Abuladze's works and considers the creative anthroponyms used in the poem to be derived from the Persian language. The same opinion was also shared by Z. Gamsakhurdia with factual directness. In our understanding, in the anthroponym Parsadani, Rustveli refers to the ancient Hebrew lexical unit Pharisee, and that the character's predecessor is considered to be Giorgi III. It can be seen that, despite the creative conventionality, in the central character of The Knight in the Tiger’s Skin, Tariel, the tragedy of Demna Uplistuli (Prince) can be seen. We believe that the feudal law violated by Demetre I or George III, the removal of Prince Demetre from the Royal Throne or the gouging out of his eyes are dominant among Rustaveli’s concepts. It is in this context that the argument of oldness, scattered in the two stories of The Knight in the Tiger’s Skin, is considered.
In particular, the lines of the formulation of the essence of death or the explanation of honorable behavior given in the Will of the Arab lad [/Avtandil], should be directly related to the words spoken by the King about oldness and passing away at the Rostevan’s meeting. The historical and literary facts are that Giorgi-Farsadan is an autocratic King and Demna-Tariel, brought up in the family of Amirspasalar (Army Commander), is a young man deceived by the King [/uncle], who, is still underage and does not even realize the perfidiousness of the King’s plan.
The storyline of The Knight in the Tiger’s Skin is quite colorful, although, brilliantly done. In the whole fabric of the poem, Rustaveli’s concepts outline in parts and in this context, the theme of oldness or the argument of "monasticism" used by the Kings of India and Arabia is one of them; and it is highly probable that there is something essential connecting it with the reality of the enthronement of a woman by George III in his own lifetime.

Ibraim Goradze – a Writer and Translator

Elza Phutkaradze, Roin Malakmadze — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The work deals with the creative activities of Ibraim Goradze. He was a victim of the repressions of 1937 and spent most of his life in Turkey. His translating activity is well known to the society and scientific circles. He used to translate from Georgian into Turkish and vice versa. However, as a writer, he is still unknown. However, we have obtained his archive. It is the archive that has preserved for us his manuscript, an autobiographical work – “My Tragic Fate”. Studying this interesting work from the different prisms and, at the same time, introducing, studying, and presenting Ibraim Goradze as the author of a remarkably emotional handwriting is the goal of the research. Accordingly, the research is relevant and innovative. The work introduces us to interesting details of Ibraim’s life, work, and creative activity. Through the familiarizing ourselves with biographical details a complete portrait of the author is drawn. At the same time, without any embellishment, he boldly introduces us to the era of that time, to the extremely difficult situation in the country and its villages. He tells us how both his village and the author himself became the victims of the misfortunes and repressions of that time. It is with particular heartache that he speaks to us about impoverished human relationships. He gives the detailed description how the people of this small village find themselves part of the evils of the epoch and then sacrifice themselves for the neighbors they grew up with, and how people can be made miserable by their “good” friends, those who grew up together in the village and spent their childhood years together, because of their well-being. It is precisely the fault of such people that results in Ibrahim's “tragic fate”. All of this is described
by the author without artistic or expressive means, thereby further emphasizing the intensity of the pain. Accordingly, the writing style is simple, yet with this simplicity, with a simple narrative, it deeply portrays the everyday life of his life, the darkness of the era, and gives us a glimpse into the heavy, troubled world of his soul.

The Boulevard Chronicle of Kutaisi Boulevard of the Nineteenth Century

Tamar Sharabidze — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

"BOULEVARD" by Elguja Tavberidze is a boulevard chronicle of the 19th century Kutaisi Boulevard, it is a literary work reflecting the public life of the 19th century, and its artistic peculiarity (in terms of style) is that the writer showed us the spirit of the entire era by almost documenting the history of one boulevard and its existence. It seems that Elguja Tavberidze is describing only documentary footage, but in fact, in this description, Giorgi Tsereteli expresses his heartache. The main reason for the heartache is the quenching of the patriotic spirit of the university-graduate youth, the longing for officialdom and after the so-called struggle of "Fathers and Sons", an appearance on the public arena of the new youth is required to open the eyes to the society.
These chronicles have kept as memories the wit of the 19th century classics, the methods of teaching in the gymnasium, the spirit of the police and, most importantly, the style of the boulevard. This is the garden in which rank inequality does not exist, here everyone is equal to each other and right here the marriage of both the men and women, amount of the dowry are decided as well as selection of the host for that day dinner, along with bigger issues - for example, the fate of the Kutaisi elections and important world issue, both the lies and rumors are invented here, even duels are held here, etc.
Elguja Tavberidze tells us the history of the boulevard in detail, uses the records of historians, journalism, archival materials, but never turns the narrative into providing dry information. His comments, based on the principle of ``how would it have been really (when contradictory facts collide)'', are highly artistic. The knowledge of historical facts is combined with them, the spirit of the era is captured, the ability of scientific argumentation is visible, and the style of the author is highly sophisticated, in which artistry is not lost at any moment. The author discusses the name of the garden - the French word for boulevard, for which the people of Kutaisi used the word "Gulvardi" (heart of roses). "This folk name was so popular that it even reached the last decades."
There are many "romantic episodes" included in the work, one of which is outstanding - the romance between Prince Konstantine Petrovich Oldenburg, the colonel of the grenadier regiment, and his already married Agrafina Japaridze. These romantic episodes are, of course, connected to the boulevard.
Elguja Tavberidze introduces us to many important people of our country, presents their thoughts, relationships, and attitudes, which we cannot even list in a brief overview. The work is a chronicle of the entire nineteenth century, it is large-scale, and that makes it significant. The writer's words are rich in logical, scientific argumentation along with artistry. The words characteristic of the western dialect naturally makes it clear that the events typical of the whole of Georgia in the 19th century are taking place in the west of our country, in Kutaisi, the "Gulwardi" of Georgia.

Original Works of the Nonfiction Genre

Shorena Makhachadze — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

Nino Nizharadze’s work, Sad Monologues, stands as an exemplary piece within the contemporary nonfiction genre. This collection encapsulates all the defining characteristics of nonfiction, including the subjective analysis of biographical moments presented in an engaging manner, the illumination of real facts, events, and personal histories from the narrator’s perspective, as well as elements of self-analysis and retrospection. The genre’s eclectic nature is evident in the inclusion of various forms such as diary entries, essay sketches, miniatures, and even poetry. In nonfiction literature, the author’s subjective and emotional engagement with the events is paramount. Nizharadze’s authentic narrative style and refined expression facilitate a profound understanding and perception of her perspective, outlook, and emotional state by the reader. Sad Monologues distinguishes itself through the objective presentation of facts combined with the author’s emphasized subjective stance and emotional connection to the events and individuals depicted. Additionally, Nizharadze’s meticulous attention to detail and her skill in creating vivid portraits of diverse characters contribute to the work’s originality and appeal. The harmonious blend of these techniques results in an innovative and captivating example of artistic-documentary prose within the nonfiction genre.

A Magical Fairy Tale Containing the Story of a Stepchild and a Stepmother in Laz Folklore

Tsiala Narakidze — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The article deals with the discussion of magical fairy tales containing the story of a stepchild and a stepmother.
The work is noteworthy to the extent that fairy tales recorded from the Laz people living in the village of Sarpi in the Republic of Turkey, are used as research material, which allows us to fully analyze the Laz fairy tale epic coming from the depths of centuries (in particular, the magical tales that talk about the relationship between a stepchild and a stepmother) and draw appropriate conclusions.
It should be noted that in Laz fairy tale epic, the relationship between the hero and the anti-hero is related to the problem of good and evil, which ultimately ends with the victory of the hero of the tale and the defeat of the anti-hero. i.e. Good triumphs over evil.
A wicked stepmother and her spoiled daughter are duly punished by God. Kind and hardworking stepdaughter overcomes all hardships with dignity and becomes the wife.

For the Reception of Romanticism in Georgian Symbolic Discourse

Tamar Paichadze — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The Georgian symbolist school itself was informationally presented as a variation of European school and identical to it by means of essence. This must also be considered as the cause of accusations by totalitarian ideology to modernists: that they were absolutely identical and imitated each other. Even general overview shows that despite their identical ideological-methodological choice the Georgian symbolist group members still were different from each other by creative status.
It is a fact that we must look for the origins of those extraordinary features in Georgian classic literature; naturally, the question if Georgian modernists had an ancestor in Georgian national artistic environment takes us to romanticism… The Georgian symbolists’ answer was ambiguous at that time and is the same today from literature critics.
As it was stressed the Georgian symbolist school itself was informationally presented as a variation of European school and absolutely identical to it by means of essence. This must also be considered as the cause of accusations by totalitarian ideology to modernists: that they were absolutely identical and imitated each other. Even general overview shows that despite their identical ideological-methodological choice the Georgian symbolist group members still were different from each other by creative status (considering orthodoxalism and traditionalism).
As it is known in culturological researches symbolism is also called “neo-romanticism”. Here we meet its historic and attitude relation with European romanticism schools’ traditions, although in Georgia the given attitude is different: as far as symbolism was not Georgian phenomenon and had a century distance from Georgian romantic school, their connection existed more on the level of historic memory. Georgian symbolists were also less aware of the base in creative ideology of Georgian romanticists. This explains their various attitudes to romantic poetry: they accepted only some of his poems and recognized only Nikoloz Baratashvili as representative of Georgian romanticism in general. Still, intercultural influences are apparent; world romanticism schools’ artists and their creative image-symbols became closer to Georgian symbolists, which even in dualist philosophy interpretation were recognized in Georgian theories of transcendentalism and spiritual unrest cultivation and in one of the main creative images of symbolic thinking – ideological perception of woman’s beauty and love.
If we speak about literature preamble of modernism ideology in Georgia we have to go through shorter chronology – only two decades in order to discuss Vazha Pshavela’s and Vasil Barnov’s creative biographies, as silhouettes of modernistic thinking are clearly seen in their artistic discourses.

A Story about a Young Man Seeking the Hand of King Tamar in Taoian Folklore

Tina Shioshvili — Fri, 14 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

In one of the most ancient regions of Georgia, Tao, the memory of one of the most beloved Georgian kings, King Tamar, has survived until recently. The oral tradition of the Taoel Georgians is rich with narratives about the reign of King Tamar. Among these legends is the story of the tragic death of a young man who was separated from Tamar, and it is spread in many versions across the folklore of almost all corners of Georgia.
The Taoist legend, which includes the story of the young man's tragic death separated from King Tamar, along with other narratives related to Tamar, serves as additional evidence that the folkloric creativity of the Taoist Georgians is an integral part of the unified Georgian cultural space.

Georgia's Historical Past in Georgian Folklore and works of Vakhtang Orbeliani ("Old Dmanisi", "Two Dreams")

Pati Abashidze — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The report discusses the problem of relationship between the poems "Old Dmanisi" and "Ori Sizmari" by the Georgian romanticist Vakhtang Orbeliani with Georgian folklore. In these poems of the poet, a great interest is expressed in the historical past of the homeland, as well as in folk poetry, where the heroic past of our country is clearly visible; The poet longs for the lost glory of his homeland and is saddened by the current reality, which is clearly visible in the analytical poems.

Literary Centers and Figures in Turkey in the 19th Century and the Beginning of the 20th Century

Sudan Altun — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The historical ties between Turkey and Georgia indeed span centuries, fostering a rich cultural exchange and a shared heritage. Both nations have experienced periods of close cooperation and mutual interest, leading to a deep understanding and appreciation of each other's cultures, languages, and literature. In recent times, Turkey has evolved into a western-oriented, democratic nation with which Georgia maintains strong, friendly relations.
The historical connections between the two countries have led to similarities in their cultural heritage, history, literature, and traditions. This shared treasure trove of culture and history serves as a common heritage, necessitating its study, preservation, and presentation—an endeavor of interest to both Georgian and Turkish researchers. While political relations have been longstanding, literary contacts between Turkey and Georgia began developing more prominently in the last century. Georgian scholars recognized the significance of translating Turkish literature early on, considering it a crucial task for the new era. Interest in Turkish history, language, and literature has persisted in Georgia, reflected in the multitude of academic works—monographs, dissertations, articles, and studies—exploring Turkish-Georgian literary relations, Turkish language influence on Georgian, and other related subjects. Georgian readers have exhibited a growing interest in Turkish literature, particularly in the last decade. Literary critics attribute this increased attention to the substantial cultural similarities shared between Georgian and Turkish culture.
The work “Literary Centers And Figures in Turkey in the 19th Century And the Beginning of the 20th Century” sheds light on the educational centers established by Georgians abroad. These centers, built with immense effort and dedication, faced numerous challenges, including destruction caused by famine, the loss of valuable manuscripts, and theft. Despite these hardships, the Georgian Savane in Istanbul stands out as a beacon of Georgian culture. It served as a haven where
philosophers, clergy, prominent figures in Georgian culture and science, and renowned historical figures congregated and worked, preserving a slice of Georgian heritage in a foreign land.

The Issue of Ottoman Georgians in Akaki Tsereteli's Journalism ("To Ottoman Georgians")

Dali Betkhoshvili — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

In Akaki Tsereteli's rich artistic thought, a special place belongs to his important publicism, in which many pressing issues are brought to the fore, which shows the unified Georgian national spirit and must be considered in a single context to show the integrity of the country. This issue is discussed in Akaki Tsereteli's journalistic letter "To the Ottoman Georgians", written in 1875-77, where the issue of non-Muslim Georgians in one part of Georgia is conveyed with painful lines, but still it preserves the national spirit and is still Georgian in its essence.
Akaki Tsereteli talks about the issue of divided Georgianness in a journalistic letter to "Ottoman Georgians" and it shows Georgians who have different beliefs but are still united. According to the author's note, although the perverse fate has lost the nation's centuries-old unity, split it in two, separated it by faith, ... but the plague and the disease are still together, one and the same.
The issue raised by the author in the named journalistic letter was not only problematic and important in previous centuries, but even today it is painfully felt in the worldview of every Georgian and represents the pain of the whole country. This problem runs through the history of Georgia like a red line, having become its political, social, religious and cultural problem, it has also become the subject of modern research, which is still looking for ways to solve it.
Akaki Tsereteli's analytical journalistic letter clearly shows the belief that the religious condition, language, history... of the Ottoman Georgians are united and inseparable from the rest of Georgians and shows the indivisibility of the country and the nation on a unified national path.
Thus, Akaki Tsereteli's publicist letter to the "Ottoman Georgians" stands in the service of the idea of the national integrity of Georgia and aims at the way of the country's state settlement.

The topic is relevant and has great theoretical and practical value, as many of Akaki's journalistic letters are unstudied and need to be investigated in terms of the problems raised in them, the essence and purpose reflected in them. One of these problems is the analytical issue, which does not lose its relevance not only in Akaki's era, but also today, it needs to be revived, looked at and analyzed with new eyes. The problem, of course, should be understood first of all in a unified national perspective, which should also be considered in the context of the Christian part of the whole world.

Reflection of the Russian-Ottoman War of 1877-1878 in Kobuleti Folklore

Roin Malakmadze, Saba Kalandarishvili — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

Our paper deals with the depiction of the Russian-Ottoman war of 1877-1878 in the folklore of the bordering Kobuleti, which had the closest connection with Guria. The cultural similarities between the historical Kvemo Guria and the population remaining under the Russian Empire were palpable. In 1873, Dimitri Bakradze traveled to South-West Georgia, according to his description: „From the border of Guria to Batumi, the population consists entirely of Georgian elements (except for the Circassians) and their language is no different from the Guruli Kilo. The type of inhabitants, clothes, customs are also Guruli.” Therefore, it is not at all surprising that in Kobuleti folklore, together with Adjarian, Guruli elements can be felt.
The war of 1877-1878 was one of the bloodiest and at the same time fruitful for Georgia. The expectation of the Georgian society from this war was the return of the Georgian lands to the motherland, which is why they met the start of the war with great joy. as in other cases, the Caucasian front was given great importance in this war as well. The main combat operations took place in several directions. As a result of the war, the Russian Empire in the Caucasus received the cities of Artaan, Kars, Batumi (with porto-franco status) and the entire territory up to the Soghanlughi mountains, i.e. A significant part of southern Georgia and western Armenia was freed from Ottoman rule. In addition to human losses, this war was accompanied by the complete impoverishment of the already poor population, forced migration (Muhajiroba), extortion, transition to a new administrative system and getting used to it, etc. On the background of this difficult situation, a number of poems, sayings, songs appeared among the local population. A certain part of them survived among the population and reached the present day.
The aim of the article is to present the folklore samples of the mentioned period in a unified form, because this is a good way to clearly perceive the historical and cultural reality of South-western Georgia in the second half of the 19th century.

Some Phonetic Features of the Speech of the Inhabitants of Merisi Gorge

Tsisnami Beridze — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The Adjarian dialect is one of the most significant and ancient varieties of upper Adjara; it is the speech of the people of Adjara. It has played a specific role in the development of the literary language. Its linguistic study is important and relevant.
Many works and studies have been dedicated to the exploration of the Adjarian dialect; however, it has not yet been fully studied. A comprehensive analysis of the Adjarian dialect requires a localized study, focusing on specific valleys and villages. Thus, the recorded material will reveal more analytical forms. In this regard, the study is naturally relevant and innovative, allowing us to study the dialect in a more specific, detailed, and in-depth manner. For this purpose, we have chosen one of the historical valleys of upper Adjara—Merisi—for our study.
The paper " Some phonetic features of the speech of the inhabitants of Merisi Valley" discusses certain phonetic characteristics of the speech in Merisi, one of the historically prominent valleys of upper Adjara. It primarily focuses on the sound system, exploring the features of sound loss, sound emergence, assimilation, and dissimilation.

Hydronym of Yusufeli District

Neriman Yilmaz — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The Yusufeli district in Artvin is abundant in water resources, with over 150 rivers and lakes. The primary river of Yusufeli is the Chorokhi, also known as Çoruh in Turkish. All rivers and streams in the district are part of the Chorokhi basin. The tale originated in St. Near Baiburti - Mta Mesjid, which is 3239 meters above sea level. The river has a depth of 3,225 meters and a total length of 466 kilometers. Artvini district encompasses 150 kilometers of the area. Parkhlistskal, also known as Barhal çayı in Turkish, is the second largest and most significant river in the Yusufeli region, behind the Chorokhi River.
Unlike toponyms, the ancient names of hydronyms are seldom preserved today; the Turkish community and local residents, regardless of Turkish descent, commonly use the present official or Turkish names. Yusufel does not have any rivers suitable for navigation, and the local population's traditional lifestyle is less connected to water or rivers compared to their adjacent Lazes.
The naming of Yusufeli district is intriguing from historical and linguistic-cultural perspectives. In the Georgian-speaking villages of Yusufeli, there are two names for the same place: one is the official Turkish name, and the other is the traditional or so-called name. Folk music may have origins in Georgian, Turkish, Armenian, or unknown etymology.
Georgian-origin hydronyms include Utaikhev(i), Dadabera, Tspintskaro, Vani's khevi, Eliathkhevi's Khevi...Turkish: Bal Su, parmaklar Deresi, Kişla Deresi...Georgian-Turkish mixed rivers: Chanchakh Su, Didgole Deres, Zemovan Deres.
We analyzed the data collected in the villages of Yusufeli district and from the Ottoman archives, which provide valuable information.

Vocabulary Denoting Kinship in the Fereydani Dialect

Giorgi Muliani — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The speech of the Georgians who emigrated to Iran in the 17th century in Fereydan province was formed into the Fereydani dialect. As a result of four centuries of non-contact with homeland Georgia and the strong influence of the Persian language and culture, the speech of the Georgians living in Fereydan underwent certain changes. Nevertheless, the Fereydani dialect, cut off from its native environment, still exists as a language island in Iran and is a remarkable example of linguistic self-immunization.
The Fereydani dialect attracts attention in many ways. In the presented article, we will discuss vocabulary denoting kinship.
The research is mainly based on the new dialectal material we recorded in the Georgian villages of Fereydan in iran (Chughruti, Martghopi, Vashlovani, Akhcha, toreli...), we also processed the published Fereydanian texts, explanatory and dialect dictionaries, scientific literature related to the issue.
According to the analyzed material, it can be said that the Georgian vocabulary denoting kinship is quite well preserved in Fereidani dialecte. Some of the Georgian word forms (sidze/son-in-law, zali/daughter in law, mazli/brother-in-law, muli/sister-in-law, dedamtili/mother-in-law, mamamtili/father-in-law...) are still actively used today, while some are used in parallel with Persian (or Arabic, Turkish, introduced through Persian) lexical units (brother/dashya, sister/baji). In addition, some Georgian words (shvilishvili, shviltashvili, bitzola...) were replaced by corresponding foreign words (nava, natija, zanamua). In a bilingual environment, where Persian is the state language and functions in all spheres, and Georgian is the home language code for the Georgians, the process of restricting and harassing the Kartsia language facts is a natural and, unfortunately, irreversible process.

Modern Aspects of Ajarian Handiwork (Knitting, Embroidering and Coloring)

Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

Inevitable globalization makes it essential for small countries to maintain their national identity in order to manifest themselves in the modern world. Proper care of own cultural heritage is nation’s pivotal priority, the cornerstone of society’s prosperity. Georgian culture is continuously rejuvenating national treasure that is a unique blend of traditions and modernity. Cultural heritage is a fathomless source of country’s continuous development, society’s self-awareness, aestheticism, spirituality, intellectual development and the mainspring for the harmonious society.
Close cooperation with tourism, one of the highly prioritized industries in modern Georgian economy, will help all other industries in their revival. Growing needs of tourists can be met by the local resources if economic activity will be increased in the respective industries. Based on tourists needs, different types of products must be created that will simultaneously showcase both, our aesthetic tastes in arts and experience in using modern technologies.
This study is focused on the Adjarian handiwork, specifically modern aspects of weaving, coloring, embroidering and ornamentation.
Goal of the study is to inform scientific society about the similarity levels of fabric types, weaving, embroidering, and coloring techniques between historical ornaments and modern, XXI century, Adjarian knitting and embroidering art products (clothing accessories, home décor etc.)
For the study of historical ornaments finished products, photo, audio (interviews with locals) and video evidences were gathered by the group of scientists that traveled various mountainous regions of Adjara in 2023. Parallel study of the authentic modern knitting and embroidering products were conducted using the items stored in private (family) collections all around Adjarian region.
The research was carried out with the funding of Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation (№ FR-21-19932) of Georgia.

Georgian Traditional Clothing Silhouette and Its Coding

Nino Dolidze, Khatuna Darsavelidze — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

Creation of modern clothing collections using ethnic elements requires a detailed knowledge of traditional clothing as a primary source from the designer. Over time, museum samples of national costume will become more unique and valuable, and access to them will be even more limited. One of the approaches to solving the mentioned problem is the creation of a database and search information program in a single digital format by systematizing clothing elements. Based on the above, the preservation of Georgian traditional clothes in an innovative way (in digital form), contactless virtual access and use as needed is a current direction of scientific research. In order to solve the set task, it is important to conduct an analysis of the constructive-compositional characteristics, among which the silhouette shape of the garment is an important indicator. It has been assigned the first level in the classification of elements of traditional clothing.
In order to determine the silhouette, the museum exhibits were studied in the regional and national museums, in particular, the dress forms included in the ethnosamos complexes, the quality of their clothing on the body.
The analysis of the ethnoforms of the Georgian dress revealed that three types of silhouettes are common: extended, straight and extended. The frequency of meetings of the mentioned forms according to the regions and accordingly the percentage ratio of the meeting from the total number was determined. Based on the number of meetings of silhouette forms, their coding was carried out using the methods of mathematical statistics.
The results of the conducted research showed that among the silhouette forms of the dress, the drawn silhouette is the most often found, the extended silhouette is less common, and the straight silhouette is relatively rare, although the difference between the number of meeting the mentioned silhouettes is not significant.
Thus, the results obtained from the conducted research will be used during the formation of the electronic bank of traditional clothing characteristics, based on which a program will be developed, through which it will be possible to obtain comprehensive information about museum samples without direct contact with them.

Viticulture in Historical Meskheti according to Old Turkish Defters

Dali Nikolaishvili, Avtandili Ujmajuridze, Davit Sartania — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

Ottoman defters of the 16th century contain rich socio-economic data of a certain region of Meskheti, a part of Georgia conquered by the Ottomans. This makes it possible to uncover Georgian traditional forms of natural resource use and the level of Georgian substratum against the background of centuries-long Ottoman domination. This time, the subject of our study is the Ottoman defters of 1574 and 1595 (registers of Gurdjistan Vilayet). One of the areas of research is to determine the dynamics of change in the way of life of Georgians, which is currently represented by us as the branch of viticulture.
The Battle of Sokhoista in the year 1545 was the main milestone of the victory of the Ottoman expansion, following which the Georgians gradually surrendered their positions. This is why these defters are important, as they were written in 1574 and 1595, about 20 years apart. Thus, they allow us to study the dynamics of various issues, although fail to present a complete picture, since the administrative-territorial unit of the same name (Gurdjistan Vilayet) occupied different areas in 1574 and 1595. Only the territory of Didi Artaan Liva was the same according to the defter of 1574, which corresponds to the total area of Didi Artaan and Panak Livas in 1595. The research has shown that viticulture was one of the most important areas in the Gurjistan Vilayet. This is evidenced by the tax on vineyards, which was levied on almost all settlements. As well as the syrup tax (sweet juice mainly made from grapes). In 1595, in comparison with 1574, the tax on vineyard and syrup in Didi Artaan Liva decreased (in Didi Artaan and Panak Livas), although their share against the background of agricultural taxes did not change and amounted to 1.7%. Against the background of many agricultural taxes, this figure is not small at all what is clear evidence that the traditional economic structure of the population of Georgia has not changed from this point of view.

Constructivism in 1920s Architecture in Batumi (on the Example of Residential Houses)

Maia Tchitchileishvili — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

From the 1920s, the formation of Georgian Soviet architecture was connected to the ideological, political, socio-economic, cultural processes taking place in the new type of state. The goals and objectives of the architecture became part of the "monumental propaganda" program of the Communist Party. Constructivism in Soviet Russia was associated with the symbol of communist construction, the expression of building a new country.
In the architecture of Batumi, mass housing construction produced at the turn of the 1920s and 1930s was marked by large-scale constructivist-style dwellings. The widespread establishment of constructivist principles in the architecture of residential houses in Batumi in the 1920s may have been due to the official government's attitude towards Batumi as a modern industrial city. For this period, Batumi represented a workers' city, whose townscape was mainly created by the new modernist architecture with its complex settlements and residential houses with a new visual appearance. On the example of the presented samples, in the architecture of Batumi, preference is given to the flow of constructivism, in which the synthesis of national and modernist trends is less visible. The constructivist trends of the "international" direction, which are based on the dynamics of simple, concise, geometric, vertical-horizontal volumes and forms, are predominantly characteristic of Batumi buildings. Residential houses in Batumi are distinguished by the appearance of a complex or urban quarter development and play a great role in the creation of a spatial structure of urban planning. The tallest buildings defining the scale of the whole quarter are also designed with the principles of this style, which is the value of "Batumi Constructivism". These buildings, as well as samples of Tbilisi and other cities of Georgia (Abastumani, Tskaltubo, Borjomi, etc.), are an integral part of the interesting historical stage of Georgian culture with their artistic and architectural values.

Analysis of Turkish Media in the Russia-Ukraine War

Fatma Kamiloglu, Indira Phutkaradze — Thu, 20 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

In general, the influence of the media on the process of shaping the bilateral relations and public perception of the countries is undeniable, which was clearly demonstrated during the First World War. In addition to providing the public with content information such as defamation, propaganda, defamation, murder, fake news and enmity, the media also actively deals with topics such as impartiality, friendship, peace, conflict resolution and mediation, hence it can be said , that the media can create the language of political communication, give events direction and be a party or protect neutrality, a clear example of this is the Russia-Ukraine war that started in February 2022, in which the media is actively involved. It is the media that creates the information background and influences the agenda of the society, which directly or indirectly affects the relations between the countries. Perception and knowledge of events developed in the world is mainly carried out through mass media Media, as an important tool of political processes, becomes especially important when it merges with the political sphere.
If we look at history, we will see that there are periods of upswing and downswing in Russian-Turkish relations. As for Turkey's attitude towards Ukraine, with the declaration of Ukraine's independence in 1991, Turkey chose the path of good neighborly relations and cooperation with Ukraine. In general, Turkey tries to play the role of a mediator in ensuring peace in the region. Accordingly, Turkey, in the current Russia-Ukraine war, offers the parties the role of a mediator in the field of conflict resolution. It must be said that there is a difference of opinion regarding this war in the Turkish society, which is well reflected in the Turkish media. The media is a powerful mechanism for causing changes in the society, therefore this study aims to reveal the direction of the coverage of the Russian-Ukraine war in the Turkish media, especially in the social media, and how all this affects the relations between the interested countries. Within the scope of the research, the Twitter accounts of the 5 most read newspapers in Turkey were taken as basis. The last year's tweets of these Twitter accounts regarding the Ukraine-Russia War were analyzed. In the analysis, negative and positive attitudes about the war were measured. In the selection of newspapers, the distribution of right and left tendencies as well as the highest reading rate were taken into consideration.

Study of the Great French Revolution of 1791-1792 (Legislative Assembly) in Georgia (until 1921)

Irakli Alimbarashvili — Thu, 20 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The era of the Great French Revolution and Napoleon always caused great interest in Georgia. In the period of the new history, no decision has been well processed and studied as the mentioned era. It can be said that Georgian historiography has made its modest contribution and made as much as possible to advance the teaching, popularization, and study of the Great French Revolution and the Napoleonic era in Georgia, which is the balance of Georgian historiography. This much hasn’t been written about any other subject in French history other than the Great French Revolution and Napoleon. This emphasizes the urgency of the issue.
One of the key moments of the Great French Revolution was the period of activity of the Legislative Assembly, which left a special mark on the mentioned historical event. The activities of the legislative assembly did not go unnoticed by the Georgian researchers of the Great French Revolution, who properly covered the issue of interest for us and offered us their own, interesting reasoning and interpretation. Several eminent Georgian historians were interested in the activities of the legislative assembly, such as professors: G. Natadze, A. Namoradze, K. Antadze, and M. Kalandadze. One of the prominent Georgian politicians of the 20th century, Noe Jordania, the chairman of the government - The Democratic Republic of Georgia, who was also engaged in journalistic activities, was involved in the work of the legislative assembly. We think that it is very interesting how the activities of the legislative assembly were covered, popularized, and studied in Georgia, from the second half of the 19th century to the last period.
Because of the fact that the volume of articles to be printed in the collection of materials is determined and our full article is much larger than the specified volume, in this work, we will discuss how the work of the Legislative Assembly was studied and covered before the Sovietization of Georgia (until 1921). In our monograph, which will be completed soon, the reader will have the opportunity to learn how the mentioned issue was studied from the second half of the 19th century until today.

Ottoman Administration of Batumi (April-December 1918)

Irakli Baramidze, Mariam Aleksandria — Thu, 20 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

In 1918, the territorial integrity of Georgia and the political future of Batumi were again under threat. Guided by the desire for militaristic intentions, the Ottomans took advantage of the difficult internal situation that had developed in the Russian Empire at the final stage of World War I. According to the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty, signed under the conditions of the refusal of the Transcaucasian side to participate in the negotiations, the Ottomans made their way into the Batumi region. The Trabzon Peace Conference became a kind of arena for Georgia to turn the situation in favor of the country and sign a fair peace with the Ottomans, although the Ottomans consciously went to restore the borders that existed before 1878 and did not make any compromises. The Ottomans took over Georgian districts (Kars, Artaan, Batumi) by force and in violation of the law, thereby violating the terms of the Brest Armistice, since the agreement did not provide for the direct transfer of the mentioned districts to them. In April 1918, the era of the Ottoman occupation of Batumi began. An Ottoman administration was formed, which was undisciplined and technically inadequate in its content. The state treasury passed into the hands of the Ottomans. The Ottoman language was declared the state language, and the Ottoman lira came into circulation. Strict control was established over oil products. The rights of city self-government were limited, the streets were renamed. A police regime and a curfew were established in the city, which somehow ensured the maintenance of order in the city. From a socio-economic point of view, the city found itself in a difficult situation. Batumi lost its function as a port city. During the occupation, the socio-economic situation of the residents worsened, the Batumi port (the main economic artery) stopped working, factories closed, the unemployment rate in the city increased (a grain deficit arose, bread supplies were limited), etc.). The chaos caused by the occupation led to the migration of part of the population from the city, thus changing the demographic picture of the city to some extent. By holding the so-called referendum, which was held illegally and in violation of the rules, the Ottomans tried to give a legal basis to their occupation, but within a few months, according to the Armistice of Mudros, they had to leave the city and the region, thus historical justice was restored.

Enhancing Constitutional Justice at the Regional Level through International Cooperation

Mihai Badescu, Marieta Safta — Thu, 20 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The complex political and legal issues and the specific particularities of the development of the countries in the Black Sea region are also reflected in the evolution of constitutional justice in this area. Starting from the premise of the importance of constitutionality control in defence of the values of democracy and fundamental rights, we will approach the issue of constitutional justice from the perspective of regional connection and support mechanisms. The study is an invitation to deepen the subject of the organization and functioning of constitutional justice, to raise awareness of the fact that it inherently reflects regional problems in terms of the causes and issues faced by the constitutional courts, as well as the importance of cooperation to strengthen constitutionality control and facilitate access to the constitutional justice.

Evidence of Greek and Latin Inscriptions on Greco-Roman Culture and Civilization in Scythia Minor

Rareș Bardu — Thu, 20 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

Scythia Minor was not only the cradle of a synthesis of Greek and Roman civilizations, which was manifested in the large settlements of this province, but through the diffusion of the elements of these civilizations "extra muros", in the large mass of the native Dacians and the Romans, who conquered this province in 27 B.C., it was also the cradle of an ancient Romanian civilization. Its existence is also attested by the great ecclesiastical personalities but also by the universal culture of Daco-Roman origin, coming from here, the so-called Scythian monks, who marked the 5th and 6th centuries, among whom the most important were Ioan Casian, Dionisie Exiguus ‒ (the humble), John Maxentius, etc. Excellent connoisseurs of the Greek and Latin languages, but using Latin as the language of their works, they demonstrate the highest level of theological, philosophical, juridical and astronomical knowledge acquired, according to their testimonies, in the schools and monasteries of their homeland. Although there are documents about the existence of such institutions, they are few and unfortunately very little known. Instead, there are hundreds of epigraphical testimonies in Latin and Greek, regarding various aspects of social, military and religious activities, discovered all over Dobrogea today, during the last 200 years. They attest to the dynamics of the implementation of Greek and Latin cultural elements in the land between the Danube and the Sea and their adoption by the native population.

The General Character of the Georgian Social Democracy and the First Steps in Batumi

Giorgi Batsikadze — Thu, 20 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

This article discusses the general character of Georgian social democracy and the early activities of the organization in Batumi. The history of Georgian social democracy is a particularly interesting and complex topic, as its development process was not only connected to all the major historical events that took place in Georgia during the first two decades of the 20th century but also, to some extent, defined them.
The first group of Georgian social democracy, the "Mesame Dasi" began to form in 1892, based on European Marxist socialism and opposing Russian narodnik socialism. In fact, the "Mesame Dasi" became the first ideological union to start a political struggle for the protection of the working people's interests amid intense class struggles. At the same time, a different direction emerged, known as revolutionary social democracy, which later transformed into the so-called Bolshevik wing. The processes occurring against the backdrop of the diversity of socio-political ideas created a mosaic image of Georgian social democracy. In 1903, the "Mesame Dasi" joined the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP), and the process of forming Georgian Menshevism continued for several years. This integration into the RSDLP was one stage of its development, facilitating its transformation not merely as a part of Russian Bolshevism or Menshevism, but as a distinctly Georgian social democracy defined by local needs and characteristics.
One of the main centers of the party's activities was the city of Batumi. Social democracy considered the proletariat to be the main revolutionary force. Accordingly, industrial centers, characterized by a growing concentration of workers, held particular interest for social democrats. The rise of industrial life in Batumi and the large number of workers contributed to the activity of the social democrats in the city, while the social ideas of the social democrats made them popular among the workers. The article focuses on the establishment of the "Mesame Dasi" the activation of the social democratic movement, and the differing opinions on national, political, and social issues. It also examines the initial steps of the organization in Batumi, including protests and its leaders.

Creation of Cossack Settlements in the Northern Black Sea Region

Svitlana Berezhna, Helen Dyakova — Thu, 20 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The space of the modern Northern Black Sea region was formed over several centuries under the influence of various geopolitical, socio-economic, and anthropological factors. The dynamic changes in this region at the present stage, activate interest in the Northern Black Sea region's past and identify patterns in its urban transformation.
After the collapse of the Golden Horde, the Northern Black Sea region in the 14th century became part of the Wild Fields, that is, a territory that seemed to be not inhabited by anyone and did not belong to any state. Nevertheless, life was in full swing on the Wild Fields. People came to this region, freedom-loving, desperate, and simultaneously desperate, adventurers, defeated rebels. It is to such people that the Cossacks belong, who, in addition to the Zaporizhzhia Sich, founded hundreds of farms and winter quarters. Many of these settlements still exist today in a modified form.
This study will help to see in the geographical and historical landscape the general picture of the gradual colonization of the Northern Black Sea region in the 16th–18th centuries, carried out by the Zaporizhzhia Cossacks. At that time, the Cossacks actively explored the middle Dnieper region (as is commonly believed in historiography) and the Northern Black Sea region. Indeed, at the time of the liquidation of the Zaporizhzhia Sich in 1775, there were about 4 thousand farms and winter quarters created by them.
The scientific novelty of the work lies in the fact that for the first time, the geographical features of the laying of winter quarters by the Cossacks were determined. The composition of their population was clarified, the factors demonstrating the dispersed nature of the habitat of various class, national, and confessional groups of the population of the Northern Black Sea region living in Cossack winter quarters were described; regularities of formation of such properties of urban space as continuity, homogeneity, and orderliness are revealed.

The First Tea Factories in Georgia

Otar Turmanidze — Thu, 20 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

Tea farming and tea industry in Georgia is a non-traditional branch of economy. Its development began in the 80s of the 19th century and continued until the end of the Soviet regime. It has become the leading branch of Georgian economy. The first tea factories in Georgia were organized before the Soviet Union. Their construction was due to the introduction and spread of tea culture, the increase in the production of raw materials.
Along with private entrepreneurs, the Russian government was also interested in the development of tea-brewing and tea industry. The initiators of this case were Solovyov, Popov, Nakashidze, the Royal Office and others. They planted tea plantations, built the first tea factories. Solovtsov built the first tea processing plant in Buknar village of Chakvi valley. The Popov tea factory was located in Salibauri, which was commissioned in 1898. Chakvi royal manor tea factory was put into operation in 1899.
In the following years, Sinitsin, Verderevski, Diadyusha, Nakashidze tea factories, treasury factory in Zvana village of Ozurgeti Mazri were added to them. Thus, 8 tea factories were working in Georgia before the First World War. 6 of them were in Adjara, and 2 in Guria. After the establishment of the Soviet government, tea factories were nationalized. Small tea factories were closed, and medium and large factories were declared state property.

Black Sea Saint Nicholas Customs (1856-1910)

Merab Megrelishvili, Nikoloz Megrelishvili — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

After the Crimean War (1853-1856), the Kobuleti coast of the Black Sea had a particular military strategic function. The outpost of St. Nicholas included the area at the mouth of the Natanebi, where the quay of Shekvetili was located. Professor Tamaz Beradze names the year 1737 as the date of the fortress's foundation. On the map of Western Georgia at the beginning of the 19th century, the fortress of St. Nicholas is marked. In honor of the Russian king Nicholas, it was also referred to as Nikolaevsky. Initially, it was a customs checkpoint located on the sand hill, where there was a quarantine zone, a provision store, and a barracks for up to 30 guards. In 1788-1792, the Nakashidze princes enjoyed the right to be customs officers under the will of Simon III Gurieli. In 1812, according to the Treaty of Bucharest, the Russians occupied it, and the Russian-Turkish border was approved there. In 1813, with the will of the chief ruler of Georgia, Nikoloz Rtishchev, Guriel developed the construction of St. Nicholas Fortress.
Black Sea Nicholas Customs was established in 1856, and its principal duty was to monitor the border and establish control over imported goods. The customs checkpoint of St. Nicholas was subordinated to the Quarantine-Customs Office of Poti, which was part of the Kutaisi Customs District. Customs affairs in the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia were managed by the Customs and Quarantine Department, whose residence was in Tbilisi. Initially, the customs house of St. Nicholas was located on the border of Guria-Adjara. After 1878, the customs checkpoint was moved to the Churuksu area. At the same time, a customs quarantine supervision was established in Batumi, which supervised the ships in the port of Batumi. Then, the customs of St. Nicholas moved to Makryal, near the
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Turkish border. The border villages of Nikoloaevsky checkpoint were Khofa, Arkhavi, and Vytse. Sailing ships used to enter Kobuleti from Turkey.
On August 25, 1865, the Ministry of Maritime Affairs of Russia (Petrograd, Minister N. Krabe) approved the rules of operation of surveillance ships on the southeastern coast of the Black Sea. Coastal surveillance was established by Azov barques, which made fast trips along the coast. Commercial ships had to pass through the quarantine zone. Control of ships sailing between Constantinople and Sukhumi was established. Control was mainly carried out in the quarantine zone, where ships detained on the seas were brought for inspection. The goods seized from foreign ships were kept in customs warehouses for one year, and before that, they were confiscated. On July 23, 1857, it was forbidden to export oak wood.
Trade goods were mainly imported from Poti, Ochamchire, Kerch, Rostov, Redut-Kale, and Evpatoria. They used to import European luxury items, perfumes, mirrors, and watches. In 1857, various types of fish were named among the items brought to the customs territory, as well as tobacco, vegetables, fruits, flour, beans, halwa, sheep's wool, paints, and metal. There was a sizeable demand for Asian shawls in the Russian market, which supplied Moscow enterprises.
On May 31, 1866, the Minister of Internal Affairs of Russia, Baluev, approved the instructions of the quarantine customs, rights, and duties of employees.
Particular prohibitions were imposed on religious servants who came from Constantinople. They were admitted with the permission of the Russian Synod.
According to the decision of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia on December 19, 1878, and the decision of the Asian Department on May 19, 1886, customs had established exceptional control over the import of weapons, paper, and wool. Customs used to carry out medical checks on ships arriving from abroad to prevent various diseases' proliferation. On July 8, 1910, based on the Minister of Finance of Russia, the Black Sea St. Nicholas customs was canceled, and it was declared as the Churuksu customs crossing point. Since 1918, Russian Old Orthodox Christians settled in Shekvetili. In 1920, the castle of Shekvetili was demolished.

Ajara in the Post-Soviet Period (1990-2023 years)

Ucha Okropiridze — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The paper begins with the events that developed in Georgia in early 1989. It tells about the processes developed here on April 9, 1989, and the events surrounding the autonomous formations in Georgia. It discusses the results of the elections of the Georgian Congress on September 30, 1990, and the elections of the Supreme Council of Georgia on October 28 of the same year and their influence on the current events in our region. The relationship between the activities of the parties of the national direction in Adjara and the national government of Georgia at the initial stage of their coming to power and the attitude of Aslan Abashidze's government towards it is studied. The prerequisites for the creation of the "Revival Union" in Adjara after the December-January 1991-1992 military-criminal coup in Georgia and the dynamics of its formation, the struggle against the putschist coup in Georgia are analyzed.
The driving impulses of the October 11, 1992 "Hope" and the subsequent "Uimedo" elections in Georgia and its results in Adjara and Georgia as a whole are investigated. The activity of the Adjara National Forces and its activities in the struggle for the restoration of legality in Georgia.
The coup d'état of March 1, 1994 - the ratification of Georgia's entry into the CIS. year by the Parliament and the role of the Adjara deputation in this case.
The changes in the state and system structures of the Autonomous Republic of Adjara in 1991-2002 have been studied. The arrival of Mikheil Saakashvili in the central government of Georgia and the changes implemented in the autonomy of Ajara - on May 6, 2004, A. from the government of Ajara. The departure of Abashidze and the establishment of the government of the National Movement here, the policy pursued by him until 2012. Since October 2012, Saakashvili's team has left the government of Georgia and the modern policy of the "Dream" government in the Autonomous Republic of Adjara. Its activities and priorities.

Snake Island – a Short History and Its Legal Status over the Years

Georgian-Ionuț Stan — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

Snake Island is a small, uninhabited, and remote island located in the Black Sea, not far from Ukraine and Romania common border on Danube River. Over the years, this small island played a noteworthy role in controlling the Danube mouths and its important role can be noticed significantly increased these days. Taking into consideration the present invasion of Ukraine by Russia, an interdisciplinary study, both historical and juridical, is more than welcome to observe why this tiny island was so beloved by different actors over the time and nowadays also plays a significant role. From juridical perspective this sui generis island plays a large role to determine maritime delimitation. The last dispute in which this island was involved concerned the maritime delimitation between Ukraine and Romania, and the particularities of the island determined the countries right over maritime zone (EEZ).

Giorgi Chitaya about the Struggle for the Liberation of Batumi and the Struggle

Naila Chelebadze — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

Based on the memories of academician Giorgi Chitaia, the prerequisites for the formation of the author's political views are studied. The paper describes various issues of the period of Georgia's independence and its active social and political activity as the head of the city of Poti during the period of the First Republic of Georgia. The article analyzes the issue of the Act of Independence of Georgia. the worst situation created at the southern borders after the declaration of independence of Georgia, and the maintenance and strengthening of its defense together with the Poti detachment G. Chitaia's active involvement. The author's memories make visible the difficult political situation created in the country as a result of the establishment of the Soviet government on February 25, 1921, the crisis of the government of independent Georgia, the separate issue of the removal and emigration of the Menshevik government to Batumi, the positions of the government members. The danger that hit Georgia again at the southern border and would lead to the loss of Batumi is especially emphasized. 1921 After March 18, Giorgi is still actively involved in the struggle for the liberation of Batumi. Chitaia with his comrades, who described with the usual accuracy a number of important issues of the attack on Batumi (from Sochi-Gagra - Poti-Batumi and from Akhaltsikhe through the Goderdzi pass - in the direction to Batumi) and the liberation of the city. In the work, a proper place was given to the presentation of the strong national position of the prominent Georgian public figure, Niko Nikoladze, whose associate is the author himself.

The Beads Found on the Hellenistic Period Settlement

Miranda Turmanidze — Tue, 18 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

Beads are a common archaeological find in necropolises; however, they are rarely encountered in settlements. The beads and bead pendants made from various materials from the Hellenistic period burials stand out for their exceptional diversity. During the Hellenistic era, there was a noticeable shift in the development of material culture in Colchis (and in the ancient world in general), with the emergence of qualitatively new elements in both material and spiritual culture structures. In this regard, the glass (polychrome, monochrome) and semi-precious stone bead pendants found in Hellenistic period graves in southwestern Georgia are of particular interest. A comprehensive study of these beads will allow us to better understand jewelry-making, stone and bone processing, and glass production, as well as trace the evolution of the respective workshops. Beads and jewelry, in general, help us form a picture of ancient fashion and costumes. Changes in bead shapes and ornamentation, taking into account technological details (ornament, shape, material), also provide dating material. Specifically, dating significance is attached to elements such as polychrome decoration, pear-shaped and biconical forms, the so-called "sandwich" glass technique ("gilded" and "silvered" glass), and others. Thus, their detailed study will assist in dating archaeological sites and understanding jewelry production practices.

Roman Board Game Pieces in Gonio-Apsaros

Tornike Mamiseishvili — Thu, 20 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The present paper deals with the artefacts related to Roman board games found as a result of the archaeological excavations in Gonio-Apsaros fortification. It is widely known that there were many types of board games in ancient Rome and this is an indication of the popularity of board games in the Roman world, among all social classes. This fact is confirmed by the archaeological excavations carried out on Roman fortifications or places inhabited by Romans. Different types and shapes of board game pieces were discovered at these places which were related to board games. Roman culture, in our case the means of relaxation and entertainment was spread rapidly by Roman soldiers around the frontier regions of the empire. The round-shaped board game pieces discovered during the Gonio-Apsaros expedition are an indication of this. It is noteworthy to mention an ornament imprinted on a piece of pottery which might have the purpose of a game board.
The discovery of items related to Roman board games in the Gonio-Apsaros area clearly suggests that during the rule of the Principate, the coastline of Colchis was under the influence of the Roman Empire, both economically and politically, as well as culturally. Researching Roman board games is significant because it keeps us closely connected to the daily life of Roman military units dislocated on the coast of Colchis. It also shows the power of the spread of Roman culture in the eastern Black Sea region.

Curved Sided Bronze Axe from the Purtio Village

Nargiz Surmanidze, Tariel Ebralidze, Zviad Diasamidze — Thu, 20 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

One of the significant sources for the study of the history and material culture of Southwestern Georgia, specifically Ajara, in the Early Bronze Age is accidental finds. Among them is the bronze curve sided axe discovered in the Purtio village, Shuakhevi Municipality, in 2012.
The closest similar axe of the Purtio axe is found in Ghorjomi village (Naomari) (Upper Ajara, Khulo district). Besides, we notice some similarities with the axes accidentally discovered on the border of the villages of Ilumi and Bori (Kharagauli district, Imereti), in Sazano and Seiri (Terjoli district, Imereti). It is found in one of the dolmens of Esher as well. As for in eastern Georgia - in Mejvriskhevi and Kizil-Ajlo. In the North Caucasus - in the materials of Ossetia and Kortsa. It is found in Sochi and Kuban too.
It is acknowledged that the curved sides and holed handle axes originated in Transcaucasia. From there they spread to several countries. On the way of their spread, local blacksmiths created local variants by refining the forms and introducing new technical innovations. Some scholars emphasizes that a Caucasian variant of axes was formed in Georgia, which began to spread in the North Caucasus, Europe and the Danube region.
The axes of Purtio and Naomari discovered on the territory of Ajara differ from the axes aforementioned in the relief ridges on the handle and are moderately later.
Based on the classification, we include the Purtio axe in the II group of the short-flanged – curved sided axes, considering the similarities and dating it to the second half of the III millennium BC.

The Rights of Elderly from Romania during the Pandemic Period

Chirugu Gianina Mădălina — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The purpose of the paper is to highlight the impact that the pandemic had, from a legislative point of view, on the elderly in Romania. In order to outline this idea among the proposed objectives, we highlight the analysis of the legislative changes in Romania, the analysis of the influence of these changes on the quality of life of the elderly and what were the main restrictions imposed and whether they affected the rights of the seniors in Romania. The theoretical study will show that the pandemic has led to the violation of several rights of the elderly, especially the right to health.

The Concept of Citizenship from a Philosophical and Theological Perspective

Andrei Tinu — Fri, 21 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0400

The concept of citizenship is becoming more and more important in the field of thematic research, especially when addressing issues of national and transnational citizenship law. The concept of citizenship has its origin in Greek and Roman antiquity, where citizens – free and adult men – had rights, freedoms, and obligations.
From that time until the present day, when the transnational elements of the concept of citizenship tend to replace the ethno-state elements, its definition, and the concept itself have undergone a series of changes. Their synthetic, unified approach is difficult to achieve. This is why the author of this article aims to analyze, using specific research methods, the philosophical and theological aspects of the concept of citizenship, starting in this effort from the text of the Old and New Testament and from the work of Blessed Augustine, De civitate Dei.
This paper is part of a broader effort to explore the topic, materialized in a series of articles and studies published in scientific journals: Augustinian Model in the Byzantine Political Thinking. Case Study: The Elements of Political Augustinism in the Current Romanian Mentality, Termenele acordării și redobândirii cetățeniei române, Romanian Citizenship. Case Study: Districts Teceu and Rahau from the Right Side of the Tisza, Introducere în legislația privind cetățenia română etc. The titles of the works suggest a historical and legal analysis, which limits debates and deprives the concept of its theological and philosophical value. Therefore, it is necessary to initiate two directions of analysis: one through which the author aims to identify the mystical-religious elements present in the national and European legislation on citizenship, and a second one in which emphasis is placed on the secular, desacralized elements of the relevant legislation.