BLACK SEA REGION AT THE CROSSROADS OF CIVILIZATIONS
The Black Sea region, with the important political, economic and cultural processes taking place here, has always been a subject of special attention. This vast region has been a significant region of convergence of different civilizations since ancient times. The peculiarities of the North and the South, the East and the West converged here and continuously interacted with each other and the local world. Such circumstances gave rise to comprehensive and permanent processes caused by important political, economic and cultural factors. The same events determined the modern character of the wide area of the Black Sea shore, the political, religious and cultural features that are particularly characteristic of the region. Such diversity and the growing geostrategic importance of the region naturally put on the agenda the issue of establishing a wide-ranging international scientific journal, which will be a means for researchers from various fields working on the issues of the region to present their research and exchange ideas. Journal DOI: https://doi.org/10.52340/bsrcc
Niko Berdzenishvili Institute of Batumi Shota Rustaveli State University
Attitudes of the indigenous population of Batumi to the Living and recently migrated other ethnic groups
The relevance of the research topic relates to the fact that recently there has been a sharp increase in the number of foreigners in Batumi; there also has been a rise of political activation among the local population of non-Georgian origin. Therefore, city of Batumi is of considerable interest. The attitude of the Georgian population of Batumi towards this issue. The purpose of our research is, through a sociological survey of representatives of the Georgian nationality in Batumi, to highlight the issues related to one or another socio-political and economic aspects of non-Georgians (including mainly foreigners) living in the city. The fact that Batumi is distinguished for its multi-ethnic composition significantly increases the degree of reliability of the research. Based on these circumstances, it is clear that the Georgians from Batumi, with one frequency or another, always communicated with the representatives of other nations, which leads to a high level of reliability of their answers. As for themes of the research, it follows a scheme that includes: Duration of life in Batumi; Attitude of Georgians towards non-Georgians living in Batumi in general; Have relatives or friends of non-Georgian origin; The existence of any kind of fact that there is any kind of harassment of non-Georgians by the state, certain groups of people or individuals; Attitude to foreign businesses in Batumi; The role of foreign business in Batumi to employment of indigenous population of Batumi; Attitude to foreigners who came to work in Batumi; A point of view on the prospects of further life of settled in Georgia foreigners and local non-Georgians in Batumi; Problems of illegal migration; The issue of granting Georgian citizenship and residence rights to foreigners; Difficulties in granting Georgian citizenship to persons of Georgian nationality from abroad; Expediency of entering of an Arab company “Eagle Hills“. In general, we can say that the main goal of the research topic is to outline the main problems that exist in relation to foreigners living in Batumi through sociological research. The relevance of the topic is due to the recent increase in the flow of foreigners to the city and the attitude of the Georgian population of Batumi towards this serious problem.
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High-Mountain Distribution of Scrophularia chlorantha Ky et Boiss. – ‘Mtsvanekvavila Shavtsamala’ Bioecology and Study of Biologically Active Compounds
The high-mountain flora of Adjara represents a significant center of biodiversity in the Cau­casus, rich in endemic plant species that are particularly vulnerable under global climate change and increa­sing anthropogenic pressures. This region is characterized by unique habitats, where high-mountain subalp­ine and alpine belts create special ecological conditions, providing a favorable environment for the develop­ment of endemic species. Endemic plants are distinguished by a limited distribution range, high sensitivity to environmental factors, and unique biochemical properties, which increase their risk of extinction. One such endemic species is Scrophularia chlorantha Ky et Boiss. – “Mtsvanekvavila Shavtsamala”, the study of which represents significant scientific and practical interest. The aim of this research was to deter­mine the precise distribution range of this endemic plant in the high mountains of Adjara, study its bioe­cological characteristics, collect herbarium and analytical material, and perform a phytochemical analysis of biologically active substances using the GC-MS (Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry) method. The study was conducted using a expedition approach. The plant was recorded in the subalpine belt at an altitude of 2181 m above sea level, on the rocky slopes of the border zone of Beshumi, within subalpine thickets. Exact coordinates were recorded: N 41°35.523′, E 42°35.172′, H 2181 m. TLC+. GC-MS analysis of the methanolic extract identified 41 chemical components, including phenolic acids (protocatechuic and quinic acids), fatty acids (hexadecanoic and oleic acids), terpenoids, steroids, phytol, organic acids, and sugars. These compounds are known for their strong antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties, enhancing the plant’s medicinal and pharmacological significance. The obtained data significantly complement the biochemical profile of endemic plants of Adjara-Lazeti and provide a foundation for further pharmacological, biological, and toxicological studies. The research highlights the necessity of protecting this endemic species to preserve regional biodiversity and ecosystem stability. S. chlorantha represents an important natural source for the development of bioactive compounds in medical practice, supports the creation of therapeutic preparations, and opens new perspectives for pharmacognostic research. Moreover, the study demonstrates that the conservation of endemic plants not only safeguards their survival but also ensures the sustainability of the regional ecosystem, which is particularly crucial under global climate challenges.
Contemporary Features of Innovation in Tourism Products
Nowadays, the tourist product is a multi-component service, which provides a wide range of opportunities for the implementation of innovations, especially given the current pace of technological progress. The main goal of this study was to analyze the specific features of modern relations related to innovations in the tourist product. The synthesis of the latest theoretical and practical achievements showed that artificial intelligence is of particular importance in the process of implementing innovations in almost all elements of the tourist product. The changes that are taking place in the markets of tourist services, modern technological services, labor and relevant education were discussed. Attention was also paid to the processes of replacing human resources with modern technologies in tourism. The study found that in the final phase of the life cycle of a tourist product based on technologies, the level of service improvement no longer affects the quality of the impression received by the consumer. At the same time, the increase in the scale of innovations in the tourism product leads to the formation of two radically different segments in the tourism services market. One category of travelers chooses services based on digital technologies and artificial intelligence, while the second category prefers to travel without any intervention of modern technologies. The latter is their reaction to the current pace of introducing new technologies in tourism. Thus, innovations in the field of tourism create new markets and respond to diverse consumer demands.
The Impact of Foreign Direct Investments on the Development of Tourism in Georgia and Its Relationship with the Real Estate Market
In the context of the globalization process in the modern world, foreign direct investments (FDI) play a significant role in transforming a country’s economic structure and promoting the development of strategic sectors. One such strategic direction in Georgia is the tourism sector, which has become a key source of the country's economic sustainable development and employment over the last decade. In this context, it becomes crucial to analyze the impact of FDI not only on the growth of the tourism industry but also on its systemic link with other sectors of the economy, primarily the real estate market. Although various authors' research addresses investments, tourism development, and the real estate market individually, a comprehensive study of this issue in Georgia is limited, which defines the novelty of our research. The aim of the study is to assess the impact of foreign direct investments on the tourism sector and analyze this influence in relation to the real estate market. Methodologically, the study uses quantitative analysis with a time interval from 2016 to 2025. Statistical data are obtained from both state institutions (Geostat, NBG, GNTA, etc.) as well as from the public and private research organizations. The research found that foreign direct investments significantly affect the development of tourism infrastructure (hotels, apart-hotels, recreational facilities), which, in turn, creates the potential for further growth in tourist flows. Along with the increase in tourist flows, the real estate market strengthens significantly, especially in the rental and sale segments of residential properties. By 2024, the number of international tourist visits exceeded 5 million (GNTA, 2024), while the Residential Property Price Index (RPPI) increased by an average of 48% in 2020-2024. Moreover, the high share of investments in real estate increases the risks of market concentration and overheating. The article posits that in Georgia, foreign direct investment, tourism development, and the real estate market are closely interrelated, creating a mutually reinforcing dynamic: the growth of tourism enhances the investment attractiveness of the real estate market, while the expansion of the real estate sector, in turn, stimulates the attraction of foreign investment and generates additional economic opportunities within the residential rental and aparthotel segments. The findings of the study may serve both as a basis for planning and implementing economic and tourism development policies and as an analytical foundation for investment decisions by private investors. The recommendations presented focus on sectoral diversification of investments, promotion of regional equality, and regulatory policies aimed at sustainable market development.
New Sociocultural Environment and Cultural Memory: The Everyday Life of Migrants Resettled from Ajara in Tsalka
The article examines the everyday life of resettlers from Adjara in Tsalka Municipality through the lens of cultural memory and new sociocultural environments. The study is based on an individual ethnological field expedition conducted in August 2025, including 20 in-depth interviews with residents across several villages. The analysis draws upon Halbwach’s theory of collective memory and acculturation theories. The findings demonstrate that cultural memory in a new environment both preserves traditions - practices, family customs, and culinary heritage-and transforms through intercultural interaction. Issues of land ownership, economic adaptation, and interethnic marriages play a significant role in shaping identity and integration processes. Generational differences are evident: older generations remain strongly connected to agriculture and land-based livelihoods, while younger generations increasingly associate their future with urban centers. The research argues that Tsalka represents a hybrid cultural space in which Ajarian cultural memory coexists and interacts with Svan, Greek, and Armenian social practices.
In the Footsteps of Shared Cultural Heritage: Wooden Artworks in Ajara State Museum
This paper aims to examine the wooden artworks exhibited in the Ajara State Museum from an art history perspective, evaluating their place within the region's cultural heritage and their contribution to the preservation of this heritage. The Ajara region, located in the southwest of Georgia on the Black Sea coast, is a geographical area where different ethnic and cultural structures have intersected throughout history, thus forming a rich artistic accumulation. Wood craftsmanship, in particular, has been highly valued in both the daily life and artistic production of the region, developing with mastery passed down from generation to generation. In this context, the wooden artifacts in the Ajara State Museum stand out as representatives of cultural continuity and local identity, beyond their aesthetic value. In the research, selected wooden artifacts in the museum's collection were analyzed in terms of their formal characteristics, ornamentation motifs, technical structures, and stylistic features. Through iconographic analysis, the symbols in the artifacts and their relationship with social structures were evaluated. Furthermore, by establishing a connection with the period characteristics of the artifacts, their meanings within the historical context were revealed. The developmental trajectory of wood art in the region was also evaluated through typological classifications. This study focuses not only on the production of individual artists but also on shared cultural memory and collective identity. The findings indicate that the wood art in Ajara is not merely craft products serving functional purposes, but also original works with high artistic value and historical significance. Consequently, the documentation, preservation, and exhibition of these works is of great importance for the sustainability of cultural heritage, art history writing, and museum practices.
A Group of Plain Weaves Found in Muratlı (Maradit) Mosque, Artvin, Borçka
Since prehistoric times, people have made continuous progress and aesthetically arranged the spaces they inhabit, alongside their essential needs such as shelter and sustenance. Exploring its surroun­dings and now ruling over them, humankind initially spun plant fibers to obtain yarn, then learned to weave, and covered the spaces they lived in with woven fabrics both to make them look beautiful and to keep themselves warm. Woven fabrics that could not have been preserved for long periods of time, due to their raw material and intended use, have been found, albeit in small quantities. For instance, samples from one of the oldest remains were discovered in the Dzudzuana Cave, located in the foothills of the Caucasus Mountains in Georgia. Linen fabric remains, made out of plant-based fibers, were discovered in the Upper Paleolithic layers of the cave. It has also been found that some yarns were colored, two-plied and knotted. Whereas in Anatolia, the oldest woven fabric remains were found in the excavations of Çatalhöyük. These artifacts are dated between 9th-7th millennia BCE and it is determined that weaving was known in Anatolia from these earliest periods. It has been indicated in various written sources that the successor civilisations who ruled over Anatolia, such as Hittites and Urartians, also knew about weaving and natural dyeing, and even used it for commercial purposes; however, the peak era of this craft in Anatolia came with the Turkic migrations to the region. In fact, as inferred from the travelers' notes (İbn Battuta; Marco Polo; Evliya Çelebi), in and after the Middle Ages, weaving production occurred in various centers and the products were also exported outside of Anatolia. In this paper, a group of plain weaves housed in the Muratlı (Maradit) Village Mosque in Artvin/Borçka, is examined. The artifacts found in this mosque, which was built in 1846, are evaluated according to certain characteristics, such as weaving technique, color palette, composition, and motifs. This study attempts to demonstrate the place and significance of the plain weaves found in this region of Anatolia, which borders Georgia, within the art of weaving.
For the Phenomenon of Fate in Lazian Magical Tales
The work discusses the significance of fairy tales recorded from the Laz people living in the village of Sarpi. It allows us to form a complete picture of the development of Lazian fairy tale epic. The analysis mainly focuses on magical tales that talk about fate and its supernatural power, inaccessible to the human mind. An examination of the magical tales discussed in the work reveals that this area of ​​folk epic, along with other oral genres, is Common-Kartvelian and parallels can be found in other parts of our country as well.
Genetic Interrelationship of Folklore Genres
Due to its inherently social nature, isolation is foreign to any branch of art; this is especially true of oral tradition, whose principal specificity is collectivity - the expression of the aspirations of many and the tempering of all social strata within the spiritual furnace of the community. In folklore, this characteristic is manifested in the genetic interrelationship between genres. Clear examples of genetic connections among genres in folk verbal art include the relationships between the proverb and various forms of poetry, the proverb and the fable, the proverb and proverbial speech material, mowing songs and lament poetry, heroic and historical oral narratives, heroic-historical and lament traditions, as well as the multifaceted traditional interrelations among legend, tale, and oral account, and between myth and legend. These many-sided traditional correlations are revealed in the merging of indi­vidual episodes and motifs within works belonging to genetically related genres. From the standpoint of genetic interrelations among folklore genres, the issue of the relationship between proverb-aphorisms and folk philosophical lyric poetry is of particular interest, and the present study is devoted to this problem.
The Semantics of the Title of Nodar Dumbadze’s Novel “Do Not Be Afraid, Mother”
Nodar Dumbadze’s novel Do Not Be Afraid, Mother is commonly situated within anti-Soviet discourse for its explicit anti-Soviet rhetoric and its resistance to cultural isolation. The work responds to the sociocultural conditions of its time and articulates the author’s subjective position toward processes unfol­ding in the Soviet space during the 1960s. This study investigates the novel’s artistic dimension and the expressive strategies the author employs to convey his central message. In particular, it analyzes the title as a manifestation of artistic convention, its role in realizing the author’s creative intention, and its function in shaping the ideological content and figurative structure of the text. The aesthetic function of the title is assessed in relation to the work as a whole. Decoding the title is a crucial component of this research because it illuminates the author’s method of textual construction and helps determine the originality of his literary style. The analysis focuses on symbols and key lexical units and their meanings, including the number thirteen; the notion of a “new god”; satanic marks and signs; the cross as a solar symbol; the rooster as a zoomorphic transformation of heavenly fire—the sun—and as a symbol of dawn and spiritual renewal; and the “Paris Commune” as a prominent emblem of state propaganda. Biblical parables and expressions associated with the text are also examined. The analysis leads to the conclusion that, owing to its strong positional status, the title functions as the organizing center of the artistic text and serves as its compositional dominant. A close reading shows how the title acquires conceptual significance. At the novel’s end, the words Do Not Be Afraid, Mother are addressed not only by the protagonist to the maternal image but also by the author to the reader, offering consolation and affirming that the era of darkness has ended and the age of light, the sun, and the Lord has begun. The phrase suggests the emergence of a worthy generation and the advent of a new dawn. In our view, this constitutes the principal message encoded in the title.
Medea – A Symbol of Freedom in Jean Anouilh’s Dramaturgy
Jean Anouilh, a prominent representative of 20th-century French literature and a distingui­shed playwright, offered a unique interpretation of the immortal tragedy of Medea. While maintaining the core narrative of the classical myth—the story of Medea and Jason—Anouilh endowed the plot and characters with profound philosophical and psychological dimensions. His play places a particular emphasis on the internal conflicts and moral journeys of the protagonists. Against the backdrop of France’s tense political climate, and the emergence of Existentialism and the Theatre of the Absurd, Anouilh crafted what is essentially a drama of the "absurd." In this work, he juxtaposes love and betrayal, freedom and servitu­de/conformism, identity and self-perception, and civilization and barbarism. Anouilh’s Medea explores the concept of liberty, elucidating what it means to be free and, consequently, happy in a world of compromise—a world that embraces only the like-minded and alienates those who dare to think differently. Jason is depicted as a pathetic conformist and a traitor precisely because he, above all, betrays freedom and true love. In this binary opposition, Jason chooses submission/servitude and vani­ty/prosperity, whereas Medea chooses freedom, defying even the "dirty games of the gods" with her "suffi­ciently strong soul." It is this steadfast, potent, proud, and freedom-loving character—Jean Anouilh’s Medea—who has become a definitive symbol of liberty within European civilization.
Intermedial Transformations in an Intercultural Context
Against the backdrop of modern epochal changes and the development of high-tech pro­cesses, our research focuses on intermedial transformations in an intercultural context, a topic which is gaining increasing importance today. This primarily includes literary film adaptations. Such adaptations are no longer confined to the process of converting a narrative text into visual imagery. It has become com­monplace for a work created within one cultural system to be revived within another, breathing new life into it or at least manifesting loyalty to the original. This creates intercultural dialogue, where linguistic, ideo­logical, narratological and aesthetic systems collide. When a text created in one linguistic space is transferred to another cultural context and transformed into cinematic language, a process of revaluation of symbols, values and cultural memory begins. Additionally, modern cross-cultural adaptations push the text beyond linguistic, aesthetic, and ideolo­gi­cal boundaries, creating new interpretive spaces and cultural codes. Intercultural film adaptations of literature not only adapt the content, but also introduce new textual and cultural codes. This is due to functional and structural changes in characters, themes and symbols according to cultural norms, cinematic conventions and social context. Thus, the adaptation process is perceived as one of interpretation and recontextualisation. Analysing intercultural film adaptations of literature reveals that film does not have the power to directly adopt certain literary forms (e.g. interior monologues or narrative instances) without changing them, and must therefore develop its own visual and narrative strategies. Ultimately, the intercultural adaptation of literature is understood as a creative compromise between fidelity to the original text and culturally conditioned adaptation. The focus is on the productive differences that arise from media and cultural changes.
Iosif Grishashvili’s National and Political Creed
Despite the fact that the free expression of opinion by the citizens of our country was strictly limited during every part of Russian rule in Georgia, the situations during the Tsarist Russia and the Soviet Union nevertheless differed significantly from one another. In particular, in the pre-Soviet period there was greater freedom of expression than during communist rule. One clear manifestation of this is the fact that Georgian literature of the pre-Soviet era was far less shaped by political expediency than that of the following period. Unfortunately, this was the case with a large number of writers active during the Soviet era. This fact also left its mark on the work of Iosif Grishashvili (1889-1965). More specifically, in his poems written from the 1930s onward, a significant place was occupied by verses that glorified Soviet reality in a form consistent with the ideological demands of the time. In contrast to these poems, in the works created in the 1910s-1920s, Iosif Grishashvili expressed his national outlook radically differently. In particular, through the poetic texts written during that period, he uncompromisingly revealed his oppositional attitude toward Soviet authority and Russian occupation. Although at the time only some of these poems were published, his poetic works expressing such a spirit were widely spread among the people. Because of the creation of these poems, the poet was repeatedly subjected to oppression. The repressive attitude of the authorities and of critics serving Soviet ideology toward Iosif Grishashvili ultimately resulted in his creative work, beginning in the 1930s, clearly falling under the grip of Soviet ideology.
Georgian Lyric Poetry in the Era of Political Liberalization – The “Thaw” Period
The “Khrushchev Thaw period” covers the 1950s and 1960s. It is often referred to as the “Golden Age” of Soviet culture. In accordance with the call of N. S. Khrushchev, the ideological influence of the party spread to all spheres of cultural life and literature. According to the "proletarian and party" ideology, the work of a writer and poet was an instrument with a state function. At the instigation of N. S. Khrushchev, cultural figures were supposed to talk about the negative and positive sides of the Soviet system. The ideology was based on determining the role and place of art in society. It implied a connection with the ideological mechanism of power. Poetry played a major role in cultural development. “Literary Georgia”, “Tsiskari”, “Mnatobi”, “Soviet Art” - published poems by famous and young poets. At that time, the following names were known to the people: Yoseb Noneshvili, Murman Lebanidze, Irakli Abashidze, Mukhran Machavariani, Ana Kalandadze, Mikheil Kvlividze, Shota Nishnianidze, Moris Potskhishvili, Otar Chiladze and others. During the “Khrushchev Thaw period” the issue of cultural dialogue arose. It raised many questions, since the understanding of “foreign” had different specifics. The change in the trajectory of the Soviet vision was followed by a turning point in literature. Cultural figures were no longer imprisoned for ideological beliefs, but every work of art that did not correspond to Soviet ideology was subject to censorship.
The Transformation of Ekaterine Gabashvili’s Magdana’s Donkey from Text to Screen
The present study examines the transformation of Ekaterine Gabashvili’s well-known short story Magdana’s Donkey from literary text to cinematic screen not only from a cinematographic perspective but also— and more significantly—from a gender-oriented standpoint. The aim of the research is to reveal how the female narrative voice is altered in the process of cinematic interpretation of the literary text. The short story was written in 1890, whereas the film adaptation was directed by Tengiz Abuladze and Rezo Chkheidze in 1955, under a radically different socio-political context. The study pays particular attention to the issues of women’s social and economic vulnerability, the phenomenon of motherhood, and the impact of a patriarchal environment on a woman’s fate. Based on gender theory, the analysis demonstrates that in Gabashvili’s text the female voice is presented as an individual experience, while in the film adaptation it is transformed into part of a collective social tragedy. The article argues that despite narrative and aesthetic differences, in both the literary text and the film Magdana remains a symbol of feminine resilience, dignity, and moral strength.
Lexical Features of Diplomatic Discourse during the Period of Aggravation of the Eastern Question
The presented work is carried out within the framework of two humanities disciplines; at the junction of history and linguistics. The study aims to analyze the lexical characteristics of diplomatic correspondence in selected documents, to examine the properties of their lexical composition and structural formats, and to determine the role and influence of such correspondence on the resolution of the Eastern Question in the history of diplomacy within the context of the studied period. The paper gives a definition of diplomatic discourse and emphasizes its characteristics. As the analysis of the constitutive features of French diplomatic discourse in the texts of archival materials of diplomatic correspondence of the crisis stage of the Eastern Question shows, at the lexical level there is a characteristic presence of terminology from the military, legal, and diplomatic fields. The latter is explained by the strong pressure on the weakened Ottoman Empire in order to implement the decisions of the Berlin Treaty. The deciphered and translated handwritten archival materials are introduced into academic circulation for the first time.
For the issue of the relationship between written and oral speech in rhetoric
The subject of the present study is the relationship between oral and written speech within the context of rhetoric. The paper aims to analyze the fundamental characteristics of these two forms of speech, their linguistic and communicative functions, and to identify the specific nature of their coexistence in rhetorical discourse. The relevance of the research is determined by the transformation of contemporary public communi­cation, in which oral and written forms are becoming increasingly interdependent. Although the distinctions between oral and written speech have been widely studied, this paper examines their coexistence within rhetoric as a complex and hybrid linguistic-communicative act – an aspect that has so far been addressed only fragmentarily in Georgian linguistics. The novelty of the research lies in the fact that it explores not only the boundaries between oral and written speech, but also their dynamic interdependence within specific socio-historical contexts. The study is based on descriptive-analytical and comparative methods and integrates the theoretical principles of functional stylistics and rhetoric. At the first stage, the concepts of oral and written speech and their linguistic and communicative characteristics are examined, with particular attention paid to the hybrid nature of rhetoric. At the second stage, a textual and stylistic analysis of samples of Georgian rhetoric from various fields is conducted, evaluating the features of written preparation and oral realization of rhetorical texts. Through comparative analysis, the mechanisms of opposition and complementarity between oral and written speech are identified. The main objective of the paper is to determine the functional and structural relationship between written and oral speech in rhetoric. To achieve this objective, the study: defines the linguistic characteristics of oral and written speech; analyzes the differences between these two forms; describes the intermediate and transitional nature of rhetoric between oral and written modes of speech; demonstrates that rhetoric represents an organic synthesis of both forms, often based on a previously written text but ultimately realized through oral performance; and examines how this synthesis influences the effectiveness and structural formation of rhetorical discourse. The research demonstrates that rhetoric cannot be considered solely within the framework of either oral or written speech. Rather, it constitutes a hybrid activity in which written speech provides pre-structured content and organization, while oral speech contributes emotional engagement, audience interaction, and the potential for improvisation. This complexity grants rhetoric a unique role in both verbal creativity and public communication.
Kut: The Mystery of Khachapuri and and Its Relationship with Plantago
In Svaneti, "diar" remains the term for everyday bread, while the functionally and conceptually distinct ritual bread is called "le-mzir," or the bread of "mzir." "Le-mzir" exhibits remarkable diversity, among which is "kut/kutv" – khachapuri, cheese-filled bread. This study examines the preparation technology of cheese, a significant attribute of ritual culture. To demonstrate that humans in the Georgian territory used plant-based rennet before animal enzymes for curdling milk, an experiment was conducted which confirmed that cheese production using plants is possible without animal stomach enzymes, and that this plant is the plantago, distinguished by its medicinal properties and bearing the name of bread and khachapuri – "kut- ḳvax" ("kut" – khachapuri, "ḳvax" – bread without filling).
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The role of W. Occam's concept of supposition in the development of linguistic thinking
Ockham's philosophical-logical concept is a factor of scientific thinking. In the 14th century, by studying a small academic resource, the English philosopher developed a conceptual vision of the relationship between the world, thought, and language, differing from Aristotle's. W. Ockham did not create a global philosophical theory; he will take his place on the Olympus of science with specific creativity - the logical analysis of signs and suppositions. The result obtained was ahead of its time and therefore remained without proper assessment for centuries. W. Ockham's thought will become truly relevant and in demand only in the 20th century. Representatives of linguistic philosophy, including followers of J. Moore, B. Russell, L. Wittgenstein, and J. Austin, conduct philosophical research on the world, such as W. Ockham, through the logical analysis of small linguistic material in many countries. The logical analysis of language in the works of L. Wittgenstein and J. Austin laid the foundation for linguistic pragmatics. The article evaluates the prehistory that led to W. Occam's concept, discusses the principles of language analysis, and studies the path of development of the author's ideas in science.
Admonitio Generalis, a testimony to the influences of the Collecttio Dionisiana on Carolingian Legislation
The canonical collection of the Proto-Romanian scholar from Scythia Minor (present-day Dobrogea), Dionysius Exiguus ("the humble"), known as the Dionisiana, represented a crucial landmark not only in the formation and consolidation of Western European Canon Law, but also in promoting the ecu­menical unity of the Church during the first millennium, by codifying a shared canonical foundation for both East and West. The prestige enjoyed by this collection led to its adoption as a model and source of juridical authority by Charlemagne, in the renowned programmatic decree Admonitio Generalis of 789, which laid the groundwork for his legislative unification efforts within the Frankish Empire. Thus, through the interweaving of canonical legislation with civil law throughout the medieval period, Dionisiana exerted a decisive influence on the genesis and development of Western Christian juridical culture and its juridical institutions.
The Govora Nomocanon (Pravila) stipulations regarding the family
The Govora Nomocanon (Pravila), printed between 1640 and 1641 at the Govora Monastery at the initiative of Matei Basarab, marks the beginning of printed law codes in the romanian language in Wallachia. Its content reflects both the influence of byzantine canon law and a series of locally adapted regulations, which grants it significant historical and legal value. Among the many aspects addressed in the Govora Law Code, such as clerical discipline, the penitential system, and canonical sanctions, this study aims to explore in depth the institution of the family, with a focus on norms concerning kinship, marriage, parental authority, and the penalties for transgressions. I am particularly interested in aspects such as the prohibition of marriage between close relatives, marriage with persons of other religions, the regulation of second or third marriages, and the importance of consent in the conclusion of marriage. All these perspectives reflect a legal mentality in which the family is regarded both as a social nucleus and as a moral bastion within a strong Orthodox tradition shaped by Byzantine ethos. Therefore, the present research represents an attempt to reassess the contribution of the Govora Nomo­canon to the consolidation of the family institution in the Romanian premodern context, with an emphasis on how religious law was articulated with the social realities of the 17th century.
The Printing activity of Saint Calinic, Bishop of Râmnic
The present study analyzes the typographic activity of Saint Hierarch Calinic, Bishop of Râmnic Noul Severin, viewed as a concrete expression of the episcopal teaching ministry within the Church. Numerous canonical norms assign various responsibilities to the bishop, in his capacity as doctrinal authority within the diocese (cf. Canons 71, 121, and 123 of the Council of Carthage). Among these duties are the following: a thorough knowledge of the truth of faith (cf. Canon 2 of the Se­venth Ecumenical Council; Canons 2, 10, and 11 of the Council of Sardica); the pastoral care for the theological formation of the diocesan clergy (cf. Canon 80 of the Apostolic Canons and Canon 2 of the First Ecumenical Council); the concern for the seriousness with which the clergy (priests and deacons) preach the truth of faith in the parishes of the diocese (cf. Canons 33 and 35 of the Apostolic Canons); love and willingness to teach the faithful the unaltered doctrinal truth (cf. Canon 2 of the Quinisext Council), through preaching (cf. Canon 19 of the Quinisext Council) and catechesis (cf. Canons 95 of the Quinisext Council and 7 of the Second Ecumenical Council). In the case of Saint Hierarch Calinic, Bishop of Râmnic Noul Severin, the teaching ministry was embodied in several major initiatives and achievements. Among these was the rich and fruitful typographic activity that he carried out within the Diocese of Râmnic Noul Severin.
The Christian Understanding of Labor According to the Gospel and St. Ilia the Righteous
This conference presentation explores the essential significance of labor in human life from a Christian worldview. The topic is discussed in light of the Holy Scriptures and the literary works of St. Ilia the Righteous. Particular attention is paid to his reflections on the proper and wholesome attitude toward labor. For St. Ilia, labor holds exceptional value in the work of national development, placed alongside true knowledge and prayer. The study also analyzes the Gospel narrative of Christ’s entry into Jerusalem on a donkey, where the symbolic figure of the donkey (Old Georgian karauli) is interpreted allegorically. From our perspective, this image may be understood as a symbolic expression of the virtue of diligence. According to Christian exegetes, the image of the donkey in the Gospel episode of Christ’s entry into Jerusalem on the feast of Passover expresses the virtues of humility, obedience, and peacemaking. From this perspective, the association of the donkey with hard labor deserves further attention, especially in view of the Gospel’s particular reference to “a colt of a donkey” (Matthew 21:5). The Georgian term karauli here refers to a heavily burdened, hard-working animal. By extension, the idea of “labor and toil” points to a form of human work in which one fully realizes God-given potential — and through which the burden of labor is transfigured into Christlike industriousness: “For my yoke is easy, and my burden is light” (Matthew 11:30). Thus, Christ Himself becomes the one who guides the laborer and lightens every burden. St. Ilia the Righteous shares this Gospel-inspired view of labor. Through the voice of the Widow of Otaraant, he warns that tireless and vigilant labor is necessary, and that the human person must act with full application of his or her innate potential — especially if one seeks Christian perfection. To such a person, Christ’s consoling words eternally echo: “Come to me, all you who labor and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest” (Matthew 11:28). Therefore, the Savior, entering Jerusalem in glory mounted upon a donkey, reveals through the symbolic image of the beast that the burden of labor undertaken through Christian good works is lightened by Christ Himself. God did not bestow upon humanity creative gifts and boundless capacities for idleness. Rather, we are obliged to fully realize our potential so as to consecrate it to divine purpose — for this is the very reason such gifts have been granted to us. True sacrifice offered to God thus consists, for our own benefit, in the total realization and offering of our capabilities in accordance with His will. Through such effort, the blessed goal of deification may at last be attained.
Legal Regulation and Practice of Using the Georgian Language as the State Language in Public Informing
Language is the primary form of human identity and cultural belonging, and one of the funda­men­tal attributes of a state's constitutional-legal status. The state language is a socially protected good whose use and development constitutes an important state function. This paper is dedicated to the legal regulation, practice, and recommendations concerning the use of the Georgian language, as the state language, in the sphere of public information. It analyzes trends in the narrowing of the Georgian language's functional domain and the dangers of linguistic degradation, which are particularly evident in written communication intended for public information purposes. The study examines the legal regulations governing the use of the Georgian language in announcements, headings, posters, signs, billboards, advertisements, and other texts carrying visual information intended for public information. It analyzes the practice of violating the relevant norms of Georgian legislation. The research findings indicate that despite existing legal and institutional mechanisms, violations of regulations regarding state language use continue to be recorded, caused by low levels of legal awareness, certain ambiguities in the normative framework, and insufficient effectiveness of sanctions. The paper develops recommendations aimed at refining legal regulations and strengthening the protection and pro­motion of the state language.
The International Legal Status of the Black Sea
The legal position of the Black Sea in international law is regulated by international customary law and multilateral treaties on law of the sea. The most important of them all is the United Nations Con­vention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) concluded in Montego Bay in 1982. However, some other conventions, like 1958 Geneva Conventions and 1936 Montreux Convention also apply. The latter primarily concerns passage through the Black Sea straits — the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles — but it also grants Turkey influence over access to the waters of the Black Sea. Under the provisions of the UNCLOS, the Black Sea is classified as a semi–enclosed sea, a status which imposes obligations on coastal states to cooperate, inter alia, in the management of living resources and the protection of the environment. Coastal states may also enjoy the rights accorded to geographically disadvantaged states. The authors analyse legal provisions defining the status of the area in question, highlighting Turkey’s special rights as a state exercising influence over access to the Black Sea, disputes concerning the delimitation of maritime zones, and the need for international cooperation to address the region’s challenges.
The Soviet Union's State Politics and the Issue of Batumi Mosque (“Orta Jame”) registration in the 1940s
The Great Patriotic War (1941-1945) and the combination of internal and external political causes (e.g., the necessity of utilizing religious issues in international politics) compelled the Soviet autho­rities to engage in dialogue with various confessions, primarily with the Russian Orthodox Church. It became necessary to establish an organ through which the country's leadership could implement religious policy. In 1943, the Council for Religious Affairs of the Russian Orthodox Church was established under the Coun­cil of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union (1943-1965), which focused on issues related to the Russian Orthodox Church but also addressed matters concerning non-Orthodox religious organizations. However, despite certain contradictions, another special body was created to work with non-Orthodox organizations. By the decree No. 572 of May 19, 1944, the Council for the Affairs of Religious Cults established under the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR was responsible for the Armenian-Gregorian, Old Believer, Greek-Catholic, Catholic, and Lutheran churches, as well as the religious associations of Muslims, Jews, and Buddhists, and sectarian organizations (including Adventists, Baptists, and other Christian sects officially permitted in the USSR). The first result of the activities of the Central Apparatus of the Council for the Affairs of Religious Cults in the field of religious policy was the decree №1603 of the Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union, dated November 19, 1944, "On the Procedure for Opening Buildings of Religious Cults." This decree was followed by submissions from Muslims and Muslim organizations of various Soviet republics to the Council for the Affairs of Religious Cults requesting the reopening of mosques closed in the 1930s. The paper discusses and analyzes the issues related to the reopening and registration of the mosque in Batumi – Orta Jame, based on documents preserved in the Central State Archive of Adjara, the National Archive of Georgia, and the State Archive of the Russian Federation.
The 18th Army in the Battle for the Caucasus in 1942-1943
The article revisits the events of eighty years ago, aiming to analyze the key combat operations involving the 18th Army during the battle for the Caucasus in 1942–1943. The 18th Army was established in the early days of the Second World War, based on the Kharkov Military District, and became part of the Southern Front. The year 1942 proved to be particularly challenging for the Red Army. The defeats suffered during the Kharkov Offensive and the Crimean Campaign in May–July led to a strategic withdrawal toward the Volga and the Caucasus regions. The Battle for the Caucasus commenced on July 25, 1942. For the Soviet Union, the loss of this region would have had disastrous consequences, as it was a vital source of oil, tungsten, molybdenum, and agricultural production. Throughout the Battle of the Caucasus, eleven major combat operations were conducted, six of which involved the 18th Army. The soldiers of this unit experienced both the hardships of defeat and the triumphs of victory. Many were decorated with orders and medals, while several were conferred the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. Numerous mass graves remain along the army’s combat route, symbolizing the high cost of the struggle. The combination of these servicemen became an integral part of the overall Victory over Nazism.
The Attitude of the Kazakh Community Towards Those Deported from Ajara in 1951–1952
The article is devoted to the relationship between the Kazakh community and citizens deported from Ajara in 1951-1952, who found themselves in Kazakhstan as a result of forced resettlement. Many of them remained to live in Kazakhstan, side by side with their Kazakh neighbors, who saved them during the most severe trials of deportation. For them, deportation became a traumatic experience that shaped a collective trauma narrative, as evidenced by the recollections (interviews) of respondents - eyewitnesses to the events - whose narratives reflect real events preserved in collective memory. The tragedy of deportation ultimately became a starting point for the formation of a multinational Kazakh society.
Towards the history of the descendants of Abkhazian muhajirs
Owing to its exceptional geostrategic and transit position, the Caucasus has been, and remains, a significant object of international politics across all historical periods. From the sixteenth century onward, the Russian state joined the Ottoman Empire and Iran in actively contesting influence over the Caucasus. Russia skillfully exploited the favourable circumstances that emerged at the turn of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries - the weakening of its principal rivals, the political fragmentation of Caucasian polities, and a degree of passivity among Europe's leading powers toward the "Eastern Question" in the wake of the French Revolution - ultimately achieving decisive supremacy in the Caucasian arena. Following the conquest of the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in 1801, Russia expanded its influence through both military campaigns and diplomatic means, effectively incorporating the entire Caucasus within imperial boundaries by the second half of the nineteenth century. The Principality of Abkhazia was similarly brought within the Russian Empire. The Russian authorities deliberately embarked upon a set of political, economic, social, cultural, religious, and demographic measures designed to bring about the large-scale colonisation, thorough assimilation, and final integration into the empire of the Caucasus - a region of considerable strategic and economic importance. To this end, tsarism systematically sought to alter the demographic balance in the Caucasus by displacing and expelling indigenous populations deemed "unreliable" (who often also differed in religious affiliation) and resettling these territories with "trustworthy elements." This process profoundly affected the indigenous ethnic groups of the Caucasus: the Adyghe, the Abkhazians, the Georgians, and others. In this regard, the interests of Russia and the Ottoman Empire largely coincided. Following the abolition of the Principality of Abkhazia, the process of Abkhazian exile (muhajiroba) assumed an organised and large-scale character. During the muhajiroba of 1867 alone, nearly 20,000 inhabitants of Abkhazia abandoned their native land and were resettled in the Ottoman Empire. The process of Abkhazian exile continued thereafter, up to and including the First World War. A significant portion of the Abkhazian muhajirs settled in Adjara for various reasons. Evidently, some of those who had departed as muhajirs subsequently sought to return to their homeland; however, the Russian authorities no longer permitted this. Thus, members of families such as the Aikutsbas, the Kudbas, the Kishindba, the Muskhajbas, the Chazmavs, and others - sometimes even siblings - found themselves divided: some settled in Adjara, while others remained within the territory of the Republic of Turkey. Historical circumstances precluded even the possibility of communication among the descendants of Abkhazian muhajirs who had settled in different states. This situation began to change at the close of the twentieth century, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The present study, drawing upon archival, field, and press materials and taking into account available historiographical data, examines selected aspects of the relations between the descendants of Abkhazian muhajirs residing in Adjara and in the Republic of Turkey at the end of the twentieth and the beginning of the twenty-first century.
Human Rights Conditions of Italians in Georgia Following the Soviet Occupation
Following the Soviet occupation of Georgia in 1921, widespread violations of individuals’ private property rights and personal security began. Italian citizens residing in Georgia were not spared from these circumstances. This paper examines the precarious legal and human rights situation of Italians in Georgia in the early years of Soviet rule. The study is based on archival material from the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, specifically consular correspondence from Tbilisi and Batumi.
The Formation of an Ethnic Substrate: Reconstruction of Western Scientific Thought and Its Relation to Proto-Kartvelian (Georgian) Tribes
The Kartvelian (Georgian), also known as the Proto-Kartvelian or Iberian-Colchic tribes, are a group of related ethnic groups that inhabited the central and western parts of Transcaucasia and formed the basis for the formation of the Caucasoid race and, in particular, the Georgian nation. In ancient times, they included the Colchians, Taokhs, Moskhs, Saspirians, Khalibs, Muskhes, and Tubals. The largest sub-ethnic groups that have preserved related languages ​​are the Svans, Mingrelians, Laz, and Kartlians. The adoption of Christianity and its declaration as the state religion (4th century) contributed to the ethnogenesis of the Georgian nation. The available anthropological, ethnographic, and textual data on the epistemological,1 ontological,2 and political problems of ethnicity are scarce. Nevertheless, a unified approach to ethnicity is being signi­ficantly refined.3 Ethnicity is a mental construct, used to identify oneself or others as belonging to a group of common descent, united by a common origin, culture, language, historical memory and territory. From the point of view of any modern social science concept of ethnicity, it is extremely difficult to attempt to trace the ethnic origins of the Proto-Kartvelian tribes back to the distant past, since the limited amount of archaeological data does not allow for conclusions. We cannot identify ethnic groups in distant prehistory, much less connect these groups with modern cultural or biological descendants. The mixing of race, language, and culture is constantly taking place, although these objects/processes of research do not proceed consistently enough, and the coincidences are not regular enough to allow us to draw valid inter­pre­tations. Only where these variables are considered independently, separately, and are found to be con­sistent, can we consider the concept of ethnic culture as a direct analogue of ethnicity with the preservation of the group. It cannot be assumed that such a self-denoting entity has simple material correlates or even polythetic4 features that distinguish it from similar neighboring entities. Ethnoarchaeologists have not discovered regularities in material culture that would allow us to distinguish symbols with ethnic significance, because every symbol can be assigned different meanings, and the analysis of ethnic origin is impossible outside the context of a single case study. A unified interdisciplinary approach is needed to establish the proto-ethnic world. These methodological and epistemological shortcomings require that the study of ethnicity should have access to the mental constructs assigned to material culture. This is only possible where archaeological data are supplemented by linguistic, ethnohistorical, or ethnoarchaeological information. Moreover, since both ethnic and cultural affiliations change, we cannot expect that established correlations with respect to the distant past will necessarily be maintained. 1 Epistemology (Greek: ἐπίστημη “scientific knowledge”, “reliable knowledge” + λόγος “word”, “speech”) is a phi­losophical and methodological discipline that studies knowledge as such, its structure, functioning and development. The branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge, its sources, limits, and foundations. Epistemology also studies the structure, functioning, and development of knowledge. Often, epistemology is considered synonymous with gnosio­logy (Greek: γνῶσις “cognition”, “knowledge” + λόγος “word”, “speech”) – the philosophical discipline that deals with research, criticism and theories of knowledge, although not in classical philosophy these concepts are divided: gnosiology studies the “subject-object” relationship, and epistemology – “knowledge-object” relationship. 2 Ontology (Lat.: ontologia; Ancient Greek ὄν, gen. ὄντος “being”, “what exists” + λόγος”"teaching”, “cognition”) is a phi­losophical doctrine that studies the fundamental principles of essence, its most general categories, structure and regularities. It exists in unity with the theory of knowledge and logic. Sometimes the term “ontology” (the metaphysics of essence) is used in contrast to the term “genology” (the metaphysics of the one). 3 In this regard, the research conducted by James F. Pendergast (James F. Pendergast 1991, 1999), helps us define the limits of our knowledge about ethnicity. 4 Polythetic (Greek: πολύ “many” + πετέστις “establishment”) – a taxonomic classification in which the separation of indi­viduals, populations, or taxa is based on the characteristics of the majority of representatives of a particular group.
Visa Liberalization and the Georgian Scholar Michel Mouskhély
For the first time in Georgian historiography, this study critically examines newly accessed archival documents, foreign scholarly literature, and French press materials to explore the early stage of the idea of visa liberalization and to establish the role of the Georgian scholar Michel Mouskhély in its intellectual formation. The study aims to investigate how Mouskhély’s scholarly and theoretical arguments were connected to practical political initiatives and to assess the significance of his contributions for the strategic objectives of Georgia’s European integration. Michel Mouskhély (1903–1964) — a Georgian émigré jurist, professor at the University of Strasbourg, and one of the early theorists of European federalism — belongs to the rare figures whose work organically integrates the Georgian intellectual tradition with the Western academic space. His academic and public activities were devoted to the legal and institutional foundations of European unity. Mouskhély (Mikheil Mushelishvili) directed the student march in his capacity as a professor at the University of Strasbourg, where he enjoyed considerable prestige. In 1932, he acquired French citizenship and integrated into the French intellectual milieu under the name Michel Mouskhély (Journal officiel de la République française, 22 May 1932). In July 1959, under his leadership, the Centre for Research on the U.S.S.R. and Eastern European Countries (Centre de recherches sur l’U.R.S.S. et les pays de l’Est) was established at the University of Strasbourg, becoming one of the foremost academic platforms for Soviet studies in Western Europe (Revue française de sociologie, №1-2, 1960, pp. 221–222). At the University of Strasbourg, M. Mouskhély was affectionately referred to as “our Georgian” (“Notre Géorgien”) (Excerpts from a letter by M. Pierre Winkler, Consul Général de France, 9 May, Service des archives Institut Lebel, bureau 037 H, personal file of Michel Mouskhély, University of Strasbourg). The theoretical framework of the research is based on the legal foundations of European integration, which trace back to the 1957 Treaty of Rome. The study emphasizes that the idea of free movement is not merely the outcome of institutional development but was preceded by a series of legal norms and intellectual discourses in which Mouskhély played a particularly significant role. Special attention is given to the student march organized on August 6, 1950, at the French-German border in Saint-Germainshof, of which Mouskhély was both an initiator and ideologue. This event, whose main slogan was “Europe is the present,” symbolically represented the ideas of border removal and free movement and may be regarded as a conceptual precursor to visa liberalization. The study also notes that the visa liberalization regime for Georgia came into effect on March 28, 2017, marking a significant achievement in the country’s path toward European integration. Visa liberalization, as an instrument of contemporary European policy, should not be viewed solely as a phenomenon of the twenty-first century; it rests on earlier intellectual and political ideas to which Michel Mouskhély made a substantial contribution. This fact underscores the particular importance of Georgia’s place in the historical and theoretical narrative of European integration.
The Concept of the Yamato Race and the Tanaka Memorial in the Ideology of Japanese Fascism
The twentieth century, in the words of Benito Mussolini, became the era of fascism; fascist ideology spread across Europe, the Americas, Britain, and Asia, and took on religious diversity, including Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox, so on. The aim of this article is to analyze the discourse on Japanese fascism, which in recent years has generated wide interest in both Japanese and Western historiography. Did fascism exist in Japan? There is a difference of opinion among historians on this issue. One group of Japanese scholars: Takashi, Takehiro, Takahi, as well as English-speaking scholars, Berger, Garon, Kasza, Brown, Duus, Szpilman, and Okimoto put forward the following arguments: (1) there was no mass fascist movement in Japan; (2) Japan did not have a charismatic leader characteristic of fascism; (3) there was no usurpation of power by fascists in Japan; (4) terrorist acts carried out in Japan at the time were inspired and funded by the state; (5) there was no corporatist system in Japan; and (6) Japan was regarded as a unique country not adequately explained by the traditional historical categories used to interpret other societies. Japan was considered a fascist country not only by Marxists but also by other Japanese researchers: Kinzo, Hirozumi, Masao, Kiyotada, Tetsuo, and Yoshiaki. This idea is also supported by Bix, Gordon, Reynolds, and Tansman. They examine Japanese “imperial fascism”, analogous situations in Germany and Japan (the cult of power, permissiveness, national uniqueness, dictatorship, and the expansionist policy of the “Yamato race”), and refer to Japan as a “composite fascist state”. According to Reynolds, “an ideology based on the po­wer of the emperor is a form of Japanese-style fascism”. Many researchers in the United States and the Uni­ted Kingdom have identified a “culture of fascism” and a “fascist aesthetic” in relation to Japan’s moder­nization and the “management of crises via fascist methods”. At the same time, it is important to note the specific features of Japanese fascism, such as the following: (1) the flag of Japanese fascism, which repre­sented not a party but the emperor; (2) Tanaka’s seven-stage plan; (3) the dominance of the Yamato master race in Asia; (4) the synthesis of the national religion – Shinto – and the samurai code of “bushidō”. Some researchers have considered Japan to have been fascist since the 1930s and support this position with the following arguments: 1. The entire patriotic cult of militarist Japan was based on the worship of the emperor and service to him; he was regarded as the “Son of the Sun” and the highest authority in Shinto. Similarly, in the Japanese model of power, the emperor was important not as a person but as a function. 2. Emperor Hirohito was called the “Asian Hitler,” and he was not brought to trial largely because Tojo and other generals assumed full responsibility for the crimes. This was regarded as a manifestation of samurai ethics. 3. Japan had a corporatist system: the zaibatsu corporations existed even before the Shōwa era, and some of them – Mitsubishi, Mitsui, and Sumitomo – cooperated with the militarist government as successfully as Siemens, Thyssen, and Krupp in Germany. 4. Japan pursued the same objectives as the Axis powers: the redistribution of the world and the struggle against communism. 5. Japan employed genocidal methods in 1937, when approximately 500,000 people were killed in Nanjing. 6. Shinto played an important role in Japanese fascism, giving a dogmatic character to the concept of Japanese uniqueness. 7. The Japanese Kyokujitsu-ki flag is still perceived as a swastika in China and Korea. 8. In Japan, the role of a fascist party was fulfilled by military personnel, officers, and generals. 9. The ideology of Japanese fascism was implemented by the fascist organization “Imperial Rule Assistance Association” (1940–1945), founded by Prime Minister Prince Konoe after Japan joined the Axis powers. Ultimately, a historical analysis of fascism reveals that the debate over Japanese fascism will persist for a considerable time.
Urartian Military Expeditions and the Iron Metallurgical Industry in the South-Eastern Black Sea Region
The Kingdom of Urartu (9th–6th centuries BC), which encompassed the territories of present-day eastern Turkey, Armenia, and northwestern Iran, was one of the most powerful and highly organized states within the political system of the Ancient Near East. Its kings, particularly Argishti I and Sarduri II, actively pursued military expansion toward neighboring regions, aiming both to extend political influence and to acquire strategically important resources. The southeastern Black Sea region—corresponding to modern northeastern Turkey and western Georgia—had been distinguished since ancient times by its abundant natural resources, especially metals (copper, zinc, silver, gold, and iron), making it an მნიშვნელოვანი target for regional powers. The metallurgical traditions developed in this area, which reached a high level of advancement during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age, indicate a sophisticated level of local production and effective resource utilization. A combined analysis of archaeological and written sources demonstrates that Urartian military activity in the northwestern direction was not limited to territorial expansion alone. It also involved policies aimed at controlling trade routes and gaining access to metallurgical centers. In some cases, the Urartians not only engaged in military conflict with local populations but also established economic and trade relations. Numerous metallurgical centers and workshop areas identified within the territory of historical Colchis confirm that the region possessed all the necessary conditions for iron production: a rich ore base, refractory clays, fuel resources, and established technological traditions. Metallurgical products were likely used both for local consumption and within exchange and trade networks. Thus, Urartian expansion into the southeastern Black Sea region should be understood as part of a complex strategy that integrated military, economic, and commercial interests. Control over metal resources served as a foundation for both strengthening military power and securing economic benefits. Consequently, this region held a significant place within the political and economic system of Urartu.
Security Strategies and the Role of External Actors in the South Caucasus: A Comparative Analysis of Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan
This study examines the South Caucasus within the context of the strategic interests of global and regional powers, assessing how the agreement signed between Armenia and Azerbaijan in the United States in 2025, along with the evolving interdependence among external actors, creates a new strategic reality in the region. The relevance of the research is determined by the radical transformation of the regional secu­rity environment, the weakening of the Russia–Armenia strategic partnership, Azerbaijan’s growing in­de­pendence, challenges associated with energy and transit interests, and the increasing involvement of the United States, the European Union, Turkey, Iran, and China. These factors generate a multidimensional spect­rum of challenges that significantly affect the security policies of Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The aim of the study is to analyze security strategies in the South Caucasus and to assess how the shifting interdependence of external actors, in the aftermath of the 2025 Armenia–Azerbaijan agreement signed in the United States, influences national security policies and the regional security architecture of Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The theoretical framework is grounded in the theory of global interdependence, which explains how the interests and interactions of external actors shape the security policies and strategic decisions of regional states. The methodology combines qualitative analysis, document review, comparative assessment of data from international organizations, and an analysis of the dynamics of regional developments. The novelty of the research lies in the systematic analysis of the new patterns of interdependence among external actors in the post-2025 period and the evaluation of their impact on the regional security structure. The findings demonstrate that multidimensional external competition is generating a new strategic reality, shaping the direction of future policies, and providing a more comprehensive and holistic understanding of the security dynamics in the South Caucasus.
The Impact of the Black Sea on the Middle Corridor Project and Its Geopolitical Significance
The present study discusses and analyzes the geopolitical role of the Black Sea in the development of the Middle Corridor project and the importance of its successful functioning for modern global trade. The study systematically examines the economic and geostrategic aspects of the Middle Corridor as a trans-Caspian international transport route and the special role of the Black Sea in this system. The research methodology includes a complex study of geopolitical analysis, economic assessment and infrastructure development. The paper extensively discusses the role of the main Black Sea ports - Batumi, Poti, Constanta, Burgas, Samsun and Trabzon - in the logistics chain of the Middle Corridor. The study has shown that the Black Sea is not only a geographical boundary, but also a critical geopolitical instrument that determines the degree of success of the Middle Corridor.
Geopolitical Frustration and Hybrid Response: Empirical Capture of Russian Behavior after the Ukraine Crisis (2013-2021)
The Ukraine crisis of 2013 was a major geopolitical disaster since the end of the Cold War, shattering the calm of the European security structure after the collapse of the USSR and triggering a harsh confrontation between Russia and the West. Moscow occupied Crimea after the Ukraine crisis, and the military conflict in the Donbas region has led to a serious humanitarian tragedy. The Ukraine crisis has a profound historical, ethnic and geopolitical background and needs to be put into the narrative framework of the game between the West and Russia in the Black Sea region. This article first constructs a frustration-response analysis framework and introduces two mediating variables of target expectation and target distance. Then it embeds theoretical elements in the interaction between Russia and Ukraine, including the entangled history, civilization and ethnic ties of the two countries. Finally, the article uses the captured (GDELT) data to conduct empirical measurement of Russia's behavior after the 2013 Euromaidan crisis, thereby providing enlightenment for foreign policy analysis and prediction of state behavior.
The Impact of Personal Relations Between Heads of State on Countries' Political and Economic Ties
This research examines how personal relationships between national leaders can significantly impact bilateral state relations, focusing on the case study of Heydar Aliyev of Azerbaijan and Eduard Shevardnadze of Georgia. Both former Soviet officials who later led their respective independent nations, Aliyev and Shevardnadze's long-standing personal connection played a crucial role in shaping Azerbaijani-Georgian relations during the turbulent post-Soviet period of the 1990s and early 2000s. The study analyzes how their shared Soviet political experience and personal trust facilitated strategic cooperation, particularly in developing energy transportation routes like the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline, despite regional instability. Through examination of diplomatic communications, memoirs, interviews, and policy outcomes, this re­search demonstrates how their relationship created resilience in bilateral ties, enabling both countries to navigate complex regional dynamics involving Russia, Armenia, and Western powers. The findings reveal that their personal connection provided institutional stability that transcended formal diplomatic channels, allowing for more flexible problem-solving and long-term strategic alignment. This case offers valuable insights into how leadership-level relationships can serve as diplomatic assets in post-Soviet space, creating paths for economic integration and mutual security arrangements when formal institutions are still deve­loping. The research contributes to our understanding of how personal diplomacy shapes interstate relations in transitional political environments.
The European Union's New Strategy Regarding Black Sea Region Security Issues
The aim of the work is to research the essence of the new action strategy of the European Union regarding the security of the Black Sea region. Against the background of the changed geopolitical environment in the region (especially after the 2022 Russia-Ukraine events) and the transformation of the balance of power, the work also explores the revision of security policy instruments by the European Union and the real perspectives of strategic involvement. The research analyzes the main directions of the EU's new strategy toward the Black Sea region, including the possibilities of: Strengthening maritime infrastructure Protecting critical infrastructure Promoting energy diversification Developing mechanisms to combat hybrid threats Supporting the institutional resilience of partner states The aim of the work is to evaluate the effectiveness of the new strategy in terms of ensuring regional stability, strengthening deterrence policies, and forming a collective security architecture. The research is based on a critical synthesis of official documents, strategic concepts, and expert assessments. The results of the research demonstrate the EU's growing ambition to form itself as the creator of the structural security architecture in the Black Sea region and to define its long-term geopolitical role. The research results also highlight the expected flaws of the EU strategy and the potential reasons for the strategy's possible ineffectiveness. The research relies on methods such as document study and content analysis, as well as scientific literature, internet resources, and reports published by various research centers and government agencies.